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A History of Plant Pathology in Virginia: The Wingard Era - II (1935-1949)

Author's note: Describing the events and characterizing the people involved in plant pathology from 1935 to the present ought to be easier than for the pre-1935 periods because I entered the scene in 1939, and was part of it from 1941 to 1944, and from 1947 to the present. On the other hand, I know all of the people who were involved from 1939 onward; thus, there is a tendency to include anecdotes and events that may make the history more readable and possibly, more enjoyable but more voluminous. Since I am writing this history as a hobby and self-indulgence, I do not have to respond to editors and publishers; therefore, I choose to embellish these writings as I see fit. I hope you will find it progressively more interesting. Eventually, the cut-off date may be 1999 when our current department celebrates its first 50 years.

C. W. Roane. September 1996.


In 1935, I. D. Wilson convinced President Julian Burruss that combining several biology related disciplines into one big Biology Department would be an academic stride and economic gain for V.P.I., not to mention that he, Wilson, would be Head of the conglomerate. All instruction in botany, plant pathology, entomology, bacteriology, plant physiology and mycology as well as zoological courses, would be administered through the Biology Department, I. D. Wilson, Head. Although I have not seen or heard a statement to the effect that botanist H. S. Stahl's death in January 1935 contributed to formation of this super department, the search for his replacement may have been a factor. In any case, Wingard of the Department of Botany and Plant Pathology as named in the V.P.I. catalogue (but Department of Plant Pathology and Bacteriology in the Agricultural Experiment Station) and W. J. Schoene, Head of the Department of Entomology, became deposed department heads. However, both men continued to administer the affairs of the Experiment Station in their respective fields under the titles, Section of Plant Pathology and Botany and Section of Entomology.

To replace the teachers in botany and plant pathology, J. G. Harrar, a plant pathologist having earned the Ph.D. degree at the University of Minnesota, was hired as Assistant Professor for fall quarter teaching. Harrar was an excellent lecturer, organizer, graduate student recruiter and politician. He was of questionable character in the eyes of Wingard, Shear, and Henderson, all of whom abhorred the use of alcohol while Harrar consumed considerable amounts of it. Thus, to be a graduate of Minnesota plant pathology, one was automatically referred to in a derogatory manner by Henderson and Shear as being one of "that Minnesota crowd".

When Harrar arrived, he was expected to teach the following courses as listed in the 1935-36 (May '35) catalogue:

Botany and Plant Physiology was renamed "Botany" and General Botany became "Phytology; the former was intended for students from the College of Agriculture, while the latter was intended for majors in Biology. Initially the hours and credits for Botany and Phytology were different but later they were the same and there was no real reason for offering botany under two different titles. We (the students) always thought it was simply a ploy by Wilson to maintain an upper and lower crust of students; i.e., to keep Biology students separate from Aggies. After all Biology students were destined to become doctors, dentists, veterinarians, and through advanced training in various disciplines, college professors; in general, they would not have to deal with soil, crops, manure, tractors, etc. Such may or may not have been the truth but it was perceived as so.

Into this atmosphere of segregation and dissention came Harrar who with Wilson had visions of grandeur for botany and plant pathology. Harrar did not promote his cause very tactfully when he announced to the Virginia State Horticultural Society that "A new service laboratory has been established in the department (of Biology), enabling the grower to send specimens to the college for diagnosis". Although this service was already available through Godkin, Extension Plant Pathologist, and Wingard and Henderson at Blacksburg and Hurt and Groves at field stations, Harrar was presenting it as a new innovation. He thereby further alienated himself from the faculty of the Section of Plant Pathology and Botany.

No matter how Harrar was regarded by other V.P.I. plant pathologists, his mission was to teach botanical courses but being a plant pathologist himself, he chose to train graduate students in plant pathology and, therefore, he revised the plant pathology course listings at the first opportunity. The 1939 - 40 catalogue (Apr. 1940) showed the following changes:

I do not know which textbooks Harrar recommended for use prior to 1940 but for the 1940-41 session, "Elements of Plant Pathology". by I. E. Melhus and G. C. Kent, 1939, was the text for Plant Pathology and, "Forest Pathology", by J. S. Boyce was recommended for the course by that name. The last 8 courses were for graduate students. No doubt these courses initiated were added in anticipation that a Ph.D. program would be initiated in the Department of Biology and indeed it was in the fall 1940. The list of courses was almost identical with the list in the University of Minnesota Graduate Catalogue; however, at Minnesota eight people participated in teaching versus one person at V.P.I. It seemed like a very ambitious undertaking for one person. Wilson had great faith in him because in 1937, Harrar was promoted to Associate Professor and in 1941 to Professor, a rather spectacular rate of advancement at V.P.I.

During Harrar's tenure, seven students earned M. S. degrees. It will be seen from the following list that three of them presented mycology-related thesis:

Note that while Harrar was at V.P.I. most of his graduate students studied either diseases of ornamental plants or fungi infecting insects. It was claimed that he had the power virtually to eradicate mealy bugs from infested greenhouses by spraying them with macerated and diluted cultures of a fungus in the genus Beauveria. Porter, who wrote about Phomposis blight of eggplant, chose his thesis subject after Harrar had departed.

There is a personal sidelight concerning the work with entomogenous fungi. A medium for growing these fungi was based on egg yolks. I had been hired in fall of 1940 as a student employee on the National Youth Administration program (NYA, one of the New Deal projects), for the phenomenal sum of 25 cents/hr. I was assigned to Harrar. My first task was to wash the petri dishes that had been accumulated by Harrar's graduate students (Martland, McKelvey, and Showalter). I quickly found that agar easily washed from dishes but egg yolk required over-night soaking then a scraping with a scalpel before they could be washed. Dr. Orcutt complained to Harrar that I was painfully slow at the simple task of washing dishes. I asked Harrar to have Orcutt show me how to speed up the cleaning of egg yolk; he did and I heard no more from Orcutt.

It can be seen from the list of graduate students that the program was gaining momentum; three students earned M. S. degrees in 1941. Then the situation changed drastically; Harrar accepted the headship of the Department of Plant Pathology at Washington State Collage. This was a prestigious appointment as his predecessor was F. D. Heald, author of the very useful "Manual of Plant Diseases", and the textbook, "Introduction to Plant Pathology". The Washington State Department had become a world center for research on smut fungi.

At V.P.I., Harrar published 3 papers in The Plant Disease Reporter in 1936 and 7 abstracts in Phytopathology from 1938 to 1942, mostly about his student's thesis projects. He inserted himself as the senior author in contrast to present tradition. He published with his students a number of abstracts in the Proceedings of the Virginia Academy of Science and for the most part was senior author.

Apparently, J. M. Grayson, later to become head of the Department of Entomology, came under Harrar's influence and with Harrar in 1936, gave a paper on "Boxwood blight in Virginia". Among the fungi isolated only Verticillium sp. caused disease. In 1936, Harrar published a note in The Plant Disease Reporter describing the occurrence of, "Cercospora leaf spot of Calendula in Virginia" (20: 277-278); he reported it could be controlled with Bordeaux mixture, copper oxide, or sulfur dust. At the 1936 Virginia Academy of Sciences, Harrar and R. S. Mullin read a paper, "Cercospora leaf spot of Calendula species", in which they described isolates of Cercospora which failed to sporulate in culture, therefore, inoculations of Calendula had to be made with spores from lesions. Mullin, in the late 40's would be appointed to the position held by Harrar. In 1937, Harrar and L. I. Miller read a paper on, "A Phoma leaf spot and stem canker of Antirrhinum spp". Apparently this was the first report of this disease. At the year-end meetings of the American Phytopathological Society (A.P.S.) they read the same or similar paper (Phytopathology 28:8.1938). Miller then studied an entomogenous fungus; Harrar and Miller read a paper in 1938, "Studies on the morphology and physiology of a species of Entomophthora on Typhlocyba pomaria, the white apple leaf hopper" (Proc. Va. Acad. Sci. 1937-8). With Wingard they apparently read the same paper at the 1938 A.P.S. meetings under the title, "Cultural studies on a species of Entomophthora from the apple leaf hopper (Typhlocyba pomaria)" (Phytopathology 29:9. 1939).

The duplication of papers read at two meetings was also practiced with Martland, McKelvey, and Showalter. Harrar and Martland read papers, "The etiology of the Beauveria disease of Dendroctonus frontalis" (Proc. Va. Acad. Sci. 1940) and, "A fungus parasite of the pine bark beetle" (Phytopathology 30:8. 1940). Harrar and McKelvey read, "Biological control of the mealy bug" (Proc. Va. Acad. Sci. 1941) and "Biological control of the mealy bug (Pseudococcus spp.)" (Phytopathology 32:7). Harrar and Showalter read, "Physiologic studies of some entomogenous fungi" (Proc. Va. Acad. Sci. 1941) and Harrar, McKelvey, and Showalter read, "Parasitism of economic insects by fungi" (Phytopathology 31:10. 1941).

Harrar was the sole author of several publications and papers read at meetings. He listed the, "Powdery mildews collected in Virginia" (Pl. Dis. Reptr. 20:278-279), described "blue rot of boxwood" (Phytopathology 28:8. 1938), "Hyphal structures of Fomes lignosus Klotzsch." (Proc. Va. Acad. Sci. 1935-6), "Infection of Buxus semper-virens by Verticillium sp." (Ibid. 1936-7); Verticillium caused blue rot. He described, "Cladosporium leaf and stem disease of snapdragon" (Ibid. 1936-7). One of his students, G. W. Matheny, who was Barberry Eradication State Leader, U.S.D.A., presented papers based on his field work, "Stem rust control on small grains in Virginia by barberry eradication" (Ibid. 1936-7), and "Effects of four years of barberry eradication on stem rust of cereals in Virginia" (Ibid. 1937- 8). Matheny stated that since 1934, 83 million barberry bushels had been destroyed on 2300 properties and 800 sq. mi. The incidence of rust had gradually declined and infection had generally been delayed. Eradication near grain had virtually eliminated damage.

When Harrar departed in 1941, Edward K. Vaughan, another Minnesota graduate was appointed Associate Professor to replace him. He assumed the same teaching load but before he had been at V.P.I. for six months, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and war was declared. The number of students gradually declined. Vaughan continued teaching until June 1943 when he transferred to the Virginia Agricultural Extension Service. His activity as Extension Plant Pathologist will be described later. Vaughan was well-liked by Wingard, Henderson, and Shear. His hobbies were geography and telling raunchy stories. He shared them with all the staff but especially with Shear. Together, they shared many a thigh-slapping moment. He also shared them with me. During his tenure, the phrase, "that Minnesota crowd", faded away.

During the 1941- 42 session, Vaughan had an extremely busy year. He completed his dissertation entitled, "Bacterial wilt of tomato caused by Phytomonas solanacearum (E.F.S.) Bergey et al.", and was awarded the Ph.D. degree from the University of Minnesota in August 1942. He also had to advise J. J. McKelvey and R. P. Porter through the final stages of their graduate programs. Both were carry-overs from Harrar's tenure. He was having to adjust to teaching, outlining courses and preparing lectures. He changed the Plant Pathology textbook to "Introduction to Plant Pathology" by F. D. Heald, 1937. His criticism of the Melhus and Kent book was that it lacked literature citations (not uncommon in those days); Heald's book lacked attention to bacterial wilts, fusarial wilts and tobacco mosaic, while Melhus and Kent covered these subjects well. However, there was no ideal general textbook available. Vaughan continued to use Boyce's "Forest Pathology" because there was no other choice.

The 1942-43 session was a little easier. There were no graduate students so Ruth McDonald was hired to assist with laboratories. She was a good teacher and an artist. In addition to her instructional duties, she prepared the illustration comparing Granville wilt, black shank, and sore skin of tobacco that appears on page 14 of "Important Tobacco Diseases in Virginia and Their Control" (Va. Agri. Ext. Div. Bul. 152, 1942, prepared by S. B. Fenne, Ext. Pl. Pathologist). During this session, the impact of World War II became severe. Full classes in the fall were depleted by the wartime draft such that by spring the remaining students were largely conscientious objectors, female, too young, or those deferred by physical impairments. For students and faculty it was a frustrating time; for those facing military duty, the future was uncertain.

An accelerated program had been initiated in the summer of 1942 so that classes were conducted four quarters a year. I graduated in June 1943 and immediately became a graduate research assistant and an advisee of Vaughan with aspirations of earning an M.S. degree in plant pathology. However on June 1, Vaughan had transferred to the Extension Service to replace S. B. Fenne who was on a war time assignment in Brazil. Nevertheless, he remained as my advisor until he resigned from V.P.I. in September 1944. He saw me through to completion of the M.S. degree in September, and acceptance in graduate work at the University of Minnesota. A. B. Massey was once again assigned to teach botany and plant pathology courses. I assisted him in the preparation and presentation of botany, plant physiology and pathology laboratories although I was a research assistant. Vaughan tutored me through mycology, cereal and fruit pathology, history of plant pathology and he took me on some of his Extension Service trips where I was the recipient of some interesting instruction in field plant pathology and extension procedures. My M.S. thesis was entitled "Studies in the physiology, genetics, and pathology of Colletotrichum phomoides (Sacc.) Chester, the cause of tomato anthracnose." The degree was granted at the end of the summer session, 1944. It was the last M.S. Degree granted in Plant Pathology in the Department of Biology. It was the only degree for which Vaughan was the sole advisor. Later, Vaughan referred to me as his first graduate student; I hope I made him proud. Through 1996, I was the only V.P.I. graduate to be named "Fellow" in the American Phytopathological Society; that gave him great satisfaction.

From fall of 1943 through summer of 1946, A. B. Massey taught whatever plant pathology was offered. When the catalogue for the 1946-47 session appeared (May 1946), Cereal and Fruit Pathology, Diseases of Special Crops, and Bacterial Diseases of Plants, were stricken from the list of courses. This was a step toward realism. It was also evident that the Ph.D. program in plant pathology was being shelved. Meanwhile, R. S. Mullin who had succeeded G. F. Matheny as Barberry Eradication Leader, made a deal with Wilson to the extent if he would earn a Ph.D. degree in plant pathology, he would be appointed Associate Professor of Biology in charge of botany and plant pathology. Mullin spent a year at Minnesota during which time he met the residency requirements and was admitted to candidacy. ( For other students, this took from 2 to 4 Years). When he was ready to return to V.P.I., Wilson had to renege on his offer. There were not enough students to justify his appointment but Wilson arranged to have him appointed Plant Pathologist at the Virginia Truck Experiment Station until the student enrollment would justify his appointment at V.P.I. From fall of 1945 to fall of 1946, Mullin worked on vegetable problems. In fall of 1946, Wilson fulfilled his promise and Mullin became Associate Professor of Biology. He remained at V.P.I. through the summer of 1948 when he decided he liked the Truck Station better than teaching. H. T. Cook had resign from the Station in September 1948 and Mullin was again appointed Plant Pathologist there. With Mullin gone in 1948, Massey probably taught Plant Pathology again in the 1948-49 year. Whatever the situation, Wilson was seeking a replacement for Mullin and again he sought help from E. C. Stakman of Minnesota and Axel Anderson was interviewed. Axel declined Wilson"s offer but Huey I. Borders then at the Homestead, Florida Station and also Minnesota-trained accepted an appointment. Two weeks before the opening of the 1949-50 session, Borders came to Blacksburg in search of housing. When he could find nothing suitable, he resigned the appointment and went back to Florida. Thus, Wilson's attempt to hire yet another Stakman-trained plant pathologist seemed hopeless. With the beginning of fall quarter bearing down on him and in urgent need of someone to teach plant physiology, Wilson conferred with President W. S. Newman declaring that the faculty in the Section of Plant Pathology and Botany ought to be responsible for plant physiology and pathology courses. Newman concurred and approached S. A. Wingard. Wingard's response was not to Wilson's liking. Newman would have to separate the Section into a department of its own; Newman agreed to do so and about September 10, 1949, the Department of Plant Pathology and Physiology was established with Wingard as Head. It was the beginning of the end of Wilson's empire. Wingard had persevered for 14 years; his return to a headship was his reward for perseverance.

Nothing has been written about the projects and accomplishments in research and extension for the period 1935 through 1949. The accomplishments at Blacksburg, the Winchester, Charlottesville, Chatham and Holland field stations and the Truck Station can now be reviewed.

The publications prepared and issued in the second half of 1935 were reviewed at the end of the Wingard Era-I, 1928-1935. Perhaps the most significant event in 1936 was the establishment of a position for a plant pathologist at the Tobacco Research Station at Chatham. Joseph A. Pinckard became Assistant Plant Pathologist on March 1, 1936. He was appointed to the first new research pathology position established in the Department since 1923. Pinckard devoted much of his time to the control of blue mold.

Research reports appeared early in 1936 as a result of papers read at meetings. Hurt spoke on, "Control of fungous diseases of the peach," and, "The relative efficiency of fungicides" at the December 1935 meeting of the Virginia State Horticultural Society [Va. Fruit 24 (1):123-127, 127-132. 1936]. In the first he covered peach leaf curl, scab, and brown rot. For leaf curl the emphasis was on dormant spraying with lime sulphur or Bordeaux mixture. Sulphur sprays were stressed for scab and early pink or bud and late pre-harvest sprays for brown rot. However, removal of mummies from trees and the ground is necessary for economical control. Finally, the peaches should be dusted with sulphur as they pass over the grading equipment.

In the second paper, Hurt noted that only sulphur and copper fungicides were available and both were damaging to the foliage and fruit. On the other hand, if no damage was sustained, the diseases probably would not be controlled.

At the same meeting, G. T. French, State Entomologist, spoke on, "Preventing introduction and spread of crop pests by quarantine and regulatory measures" [Va. Fruit 24 (1):60-66]. He summarized work on four diseases. White pine blister rust found in Virginia in 1931, is known on Ribes in nine counties, on pine in six counties; Dutch elm disease, found in Virginia in 1934, is known in Norfolk and Portsmouth; phony peach disease cause by a virus, is not verified to be in Virginia; it "spreads from roots only and the peach borer is thought to be the spreading agency." (Now known to be caused by a fastidious bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa, transmitted by the sharp shooter leaf hopper). French reported on red cedar eradication in eleven counties in 1935, and litigation by several objectors to cedar eradication. He reminded growers to operate under the Cedar Rust Law.

At the year-end meeting of the American Phytopathological Society, Dec. 31, 1935 to January 3, 1936, five papers were presented by Virginia Plant Pathologists. Cook described, "Cross inoculation and morphological studies on the Peronospora species occurring on Chenopodium album and Spinacea oleracea" (Phytopathology 26:89-90, 1936). He found differences in spore morphology and that the fungi did not cross-inoculate. He concluded they were distinct species. Cook and J. A. Callenback made a, "Comparison of the effectiveness of seed-treatment materials for prevention of seed and seedling decays in Eastern Virginia" (Ibid 26:90). Vasco 4, ZnO, CuO, and Semesan were effective in declining order listed in both field and greenhouse tests. Vasco 4 was ZnO with graphite added to eliminate clogging of planters.

Henderson described the, "Effect on nutrients on susceptibility of tobacco plants to downy mildew" (Ibid. 26:94). In low nitrogen, high potassium solutions, plants were susceptible; in high N, low K solutions; plants were resistant. He also described "Promising fungicides for tobacco downy mildew control" (Ibid. 26:94). Cuprous oxide and benzoic acid used with cottonseed oil emulsion were very effective.

Wingard described, "Parasitism of the apple leaf hopper, Typhlocyba pomaria, by Entomophthora" (Ibid. 26:113). After a wet period in late August 1935, leaf hopper infestation declined. It was found that many dead hoppers adhering to the leaves had been parasitized by a fungus identified as E. sphaerosperma.

Except for abstracts, there were no research publications by any Virginia plant pathologists in 1936, but there were numerous popular and semi-technical articles. R. J. Haskell of the Federal Extension Service published a review article, "Big yields by seed treatment" in the January Southern Planter [97 (1):7,26]. He emphasize the control of oat smuts and cotton seedling blight with organic Hg compounds, mostly formulations of ethyl mercury phosphate. He also recalled the successes that had occurred with ZnO + graphite in the control of spinach damping-off. The apple spray program for 1936 was published without new compounds or procedures being listed [Sou. Planter 97 (2):13]. It was as usual an extract from Va. Ext. Ser. Bul. 131, Rev. A. H. Teske was cited by E. R. Price, Extension Service Editor as recommending with emphasis dormant peach sprays to control peach leaf curl [Ibid. 97(2):23].

H. T. Cook of the Truck Station wrote about "Prevention of tomato diseases" [Ibid. 97 (2):12,17]. He emphasized good seed from healthy fruits, disinfestation with 1:2000 HgCl2 , followed by dusting of the dried seed with zinc oxide, red copper oxide or Vasco 4. Tomatoes should be grown in clean soil; i.e., that which had not produced tomatoes for 3 years. Seedlings should be dusted with copper-lime-arsenate or sprayed with a 3-4-50 formulation of Bordeaux mixture. Cook did not recommend fungicides for transplants.

There was a list of corn varieties recommend for the state by the Virginia Extension Service [Ibid. 97(5):8]. All were open-pollinated varieties. The green revolution from the introduction of the first wave of hybrids was still in the offing for Virginia.

In the Plant Disease Reporter (P.D.R.), 1936, Cook reported 6.4% of spinach plants were systemically infected with the downy mildew fungus but they survived the winter as well as non-infected ones (P.D.R. 20:118, 1936). He reported tomato losses due to bacterial canker in Accomac and Norfolk Cos. from Georgia-certified plants was as high as 50%. In one field, canker correlated with plants from one crate (P.D.R. 20:226). Sclerotium rolfsii killed 32% of the eggplants in one field (P.D.R. 20:227). Later, Cook reported that so-called Georgia - certified tomato plants furnished to growers by canners were not actually certified in Georgia but the seed had been treated with HgCl2. Some short cuts had been taken to avoid premium prices for certified plants. This would eventually bring the State Entomologist into the picture to provide sanity in the certified plant business.

Late in the year, bean rust became prevalent on fall beans. Sulfur dusting and spraying used for powdery mildew control did not work (P.D.R. 20:327). In another report, Cook found potato late blight in an area of Princess Anne (Virginia Beach) where it had never occurred before (Ibid. 327). Finally, he reported downy mildew of spinach had caused up to 50% damage in Tidewater, although it appeared one month later than usual (P.D.R. 20: 337).

Groves published a number of articles in Virginia Fruit wherein he continued the comprehensive description of individual apple diseases. It was proposed that these articles would eventually be assembled in an apple disease handbook (something that apparently never occurred). Topics covered in 1936 were, "Apple measles" [Va. Fruit 24 (2):28-30], "Apple scab" [Ibid. 24 (3):10-18], "Bitter rot of apple" [Ibid. 24 (5):12-16], "Fire blight of the apple" [Ibid. 24 (6):27-30], and "Spray injury on the apple fruit" [Ibid. 24 (9):16-22]. Groves reported early in 1936 that scab developed on apples in storage on fruit York and Grimes, even through no scab showed when the fruit were packed (P.D.R. 20:76). He commented on this phenomenon in the apple scab article above.

A brief note was to the effect that the Cedar Rust Law was amended in 1936 so that cedars could be removed to a distance of 3 miles from commercial apple orchards. Formerly, the distance was 2 miles [Va. Fruit 24 (4):12].

At the first Tobacco Disease Council held in Greensboro, N.C., November 6-7, 1935, S. A. Wingard was elected chairman and R. G. Henderson was elected secretary. The purpose of that meeting was to establish objectives, review tobacco disease problems, appoint committees, and select topics for future regional research. At the second meeting June 24-26, 1936, Tifton, Georgia, Wingard and Henderson continued to serve as elected in 1935. Committees on specific projects were established and chairmen were named:

  1. Committee on stem and root diseases, R. F. Poole, Chair.
  2. Committee on virus diseases, W. D. Valleau, Chair.
  3. Committee on leaf diseases, E. E. Clayton, Chair.
  4. Committee on disease survey, Luther Shaw, Chair.
  5. Committee on tobacco insects, W. D. Reed, Chair.

These chairmen, the council chairman and secretary comprised the Executive Committee. The various diseases of tobacco were reviewed in informal presentations with most attendees participating. None of the Virginia delegates contributed to the discussions. Presumably, Wingard and Henderson were busy with their elected duties and Pinckard was too new to the group.

In 1937, Henderson was promoted to Associate Plant Pathologist, J. M. Bell Assistant Plant Pathologist of the Truck Station resigned January 15, and T. J. Nugent was appointed to replace him on September 1. Luben Bozovaisky (=L. Spasoff) began working at Chatham on a wage basis. In a letter me, Pinckard related how Spasoff, a soil scientist rather than a plant pathologist, became a member of the group at Chatham. Pinckard wrote: "I had just finished building the laboratory at Chatham when Luben knocked on our door. He had taken a bus from Ames, Iowa, to Chatham and walked the three or four miles to the laboratory hoping for a job. It was depression times and a strange place for a Bulgarian to look for a job---in the South of all places. I could not turn a man like Luben away, however, so I offered him hourly work, temporarily and found him a place to live. Later, Sam Wingard and Dr. Drinkard (our director) made his job permanent at a better salary".

The 28th annual meeting of the American Phytopathological Society was held December 28-31, 1936. Abstracts of papers presented were publish in 1937. Henderson presented, "Histological studies of infection and sporulation of Peronospora tabacina in tobacco seedlings" (Phytopathology 27:131, 1937). He described direct penetration of epidermal cells by appressoria, infection hyphae, subepidermal vesicles, and haustoria. This was in contrast to the penetration of stomata by germ tubes as shown by Wolf (Tobacco Diseases and Decays. Duke University Press. Durham. N.C. 454 pp. 1935) As previously noted, Harrar described "Cercospora leaf spot of Calendula" (Ibid. 27:130). Cook described, "Germination of conidia of Peronospora effusa from spinach" (Ibid. 27:124), and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum on Pyrethrum" (Ibid. 27:124-125) in experimental plantings at the Truck Station. The fungus killed many plants in the spring 1936 (although reported as in 1930). Henderson published a , "Report of the Tobacco Disease Council in the summary of the business meeting of the annual meeting (Ibid. 27:658-659). Otherwise, Virginia's plant pathologists published nothing further in Phytopathology 27.

Only Hurt spoke at the December 8-10, 1936 meeting of the Virginia State Horticultural Society. His talk was published the following January. [R. H. Hurt. Home made wettable sulphur as a peach fungicide. Va. Fruit 25 (1):201-204. 1937] Two methods, tank mix and bucket mix, were described. Hurt emphasized that home made wettable sulphur was much cheaper than commercial products.

Several Experiment Station bulletins were published by plant pathologists in 1937. Hurt issued a two-part bulletin "1. The Control of Peach Curl, Scab, and Brown Rot. 2. Spray Materials for Peaches" (Va. Agri Expt. Sta. Bul. 312). Most peach sprays were various sulphur, lime sulphur or Bordeaux mixture formulations and their use has been noted previously.

Wingard and Henderson prepared the blue mold portion of, "Control of Tobacco Blue Mold (Downy Mildew) and Tobacco Flea Beetle" (Ibid 313. 1937). They reported that blue mold was first found in Virginia 1931, was damaging in 1932, -33,-37. Symptoms and etiology were described, and control measures were enumerated.

Three methods were emphasized:

  1. Cultural methods which included site selection, rotation, and sanitation.
  2. Fumigation with benzol.
  3. Spraying with a yellow copper oxide-cotton seed oil .

No experiments were described.

Henderson summarized his studies on tobacco blue mold and for his efforts won the 1937 J. Shelton Horsley Award for research offered by the Virginia Academy of Science (R. G. Henderson. Studies on Tobacco Downy Mildew in Virginia. Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 1937). Henderson gave detailed accounts of the histology of spore germination, penetration of leaves mostly through upper epidermis, and subsequent development of substomatal vesicles and haustoria. He described experiments upon effects of nutrition wherein plants supplied high amounts of nitrogen and low amounts of potassium were more resistant to downy mildew than those supplied low N and high K. Sprays of cuprous oxide proved to be superior to sprays of Bordeaux mixture, calcium monosulfide, benzoic acid, and other lesser known fungicides.

Cook published "Spinach and Cabbage Seed Treatment" (Va. Truck Expt. Sta. Bul 96. 1937) which was a summary of experiments during the past 5 years. Zinc oxide and red copper oxide were best for spinach and zinc oxide was best for cabbage. Both compounds require added graphite to reduce friction and clogging of seeders. Cook also published, "Watermelon Wilt and Resistant Varieties for its Control" (Ibid. 97:1937). The disease was found in Virginia in 1918, and did severe damage near Smithfield in 1933. Cook described and illustrated the disease and stated that is seed-borne. Treatment with HgCl2 , 1:1000, disinfects the seed. A wilt resistant variety, 'Hawkesbury', from Australia was superior to moderately resistant 'Leesburg' and 'Klondike'. In a paper presented to the Association of Official Seed Analysts, Aug. 1937, "Vegetable-seed treatment experiments and practices in Virginia", Cook paraphrased Bulletin 96 and described treatments tried on tomato, kale, and cucurbits. He attempted to find the highest concentration of material that would control seed- borne pathogens without causing seedling injury.

Groves published a paper, "Common non-parasitic diseases of the apples" [Va. Fruit 25 (4):22-26. 1937], which addressed bitter pit, cork, water core and fruit cracking. Internal cork and bitter pit were believed to be caused by boron deficiency. At present corking is known to be caused by B deficiency but bitter pit is now attributed to high N and K levels and low Ca levels interacting with irregular water supply. Groves attributed water core to high fruit temperatures. Presently, water core is associated with low Ca and high N and over-ripe fruit at harvest. Fruit cracking was attributed to several environmental factors and genetic proneness. This is also the case at present.

In The Southern Planter, vol. 98, 1937, a few items but no major articles appeared. The annual spray calendar did not list any new fungicides or procedures [98 (2):4]; the editor reviewed previous articles by Cook and Haskell in, "Seed treatment controls seed-borne diseases" [98 (2):24]. E. T. Batten in an article on, "Peanut production" denied control of leaf spot was necessary but acknowledged its presence and increasing intensity [98 (3) 6,24]. In the Truck, Garden, and Orchard section under "Start right with tomato plants, it was mistakenly stated that late blight is seed-born in tomato. Early blight is but late blight is not. Bichloride of mercury and dust treatments were recommended to control bacterial diseases, early blight, and damping-off [98 (3):40]. Cook provided a vegetable seed treatment chart for 13 crops or crop groups. Inorganic Cu, Zn, and Hg compounds predominated, but organic Hg (Semesan) was recommended for cabbage, peas, and watermelon [98 (4):40]. Godkin promoted cotton seed treatment with 2% Ceresan for control of damping-off and seed rot [98 (4):25].

Federal and state pathologists contributed several items to The Plant Disease Reporter, (P.D.R) vol. 21, 1937. M. E. Fowler (U.S.D.A.) reported the first occurrence in Virginia of wilt (Verticillium albo-atrum) of smoke tree (Cotinus coggygnia) at Mt. Vernon in 1936 (P.D.R. 21:10). Cook (Truck Station) reported the first occurrence of powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) on kale in Virginia (P.D.R. 21:141). There were several disease status reports on tobacco (Pinckard, Godkin, Henderson, P.D.R. 21:27-29; P. R. Miller, (U.S.D.A.) 21:185, 260; and Tobacco Disease Survey Committee, including Godkin 21:44- 50). Downy mildew caused little damage in 1936 but was very destructive in 1937. Groves reported on the progress of quince rust, apple powdery mildew and peach leaf curl and Wingard reported on stem rot of clover and alfalfa and on general prevalence of cereal powdery mildew (P.D.R. 21:174).

P.R. Miller and Godkin reported that 2% Ceresan seed treatments greatly improved cotton stands. Growers were convinced they should treat future seed lots (P.D.R. 21:211-212). Matheny in reports on cereal rusts stated leaf rust was heavy on wheat, barley and rye, and stem rust was very heavy near barberry bushes; it was scored as high as 47% on rye, 70% on wheat, and trace on barley while none occurred on oats (P.D.R. 21:199, 224). Harrar listed some unusual diseases of ornamental plants; namely, Cladosporuim leaf and stem blight and Phoma leaf spot and stem canker of snapdragon, and Verticillium stem rot of boxwood (P.D.R. 21:218). Harrar and Wingard listed the occurrence of sycamore anthracnose, maple leaf blight, oak leaf spot, and Gloeosporium leaf spot of elm and ash (P.D.R. 21:218). Cook stated that in the fall of 1937, potato late blight occurred again in Princess Anne Co. (=Virginia Beach), and bean powdery mildew was severe after the second week in October. In one test, U.S. Mosaic Resistant Refugee No.5 was also mildew resistant. Bean rust was locally severe, spinach downy mildew was mild, and spinach Fusarium wilt caused some fields to be replanted (P.D.R. 21:426-427).

The federal quarantine on rust-susceptible barberry bushes was extended in 1937 to include Virginia. Black shank of tobacco occurred in Virginia for the first time in summer of 1937 but this event was not reported until 1939 (Wingard, P.D.R. 23:369-370).

The Third Annual Conference of the Tobacco Disease Council met July 7-8, 1937 at Florence, S.C. S. A. Wingard was elected permanent Secretary. Pinckard contributed a "Preliminary report on the occurrence of tobacco mosaic in random samples of flue-cured tobacco collected from the market". He reported a low level of virus in leaves collected at the market, but that leaves of infected 'Yellow Mammoth' collected in summer of 1936, when tested for virus, caused symptoms in inoculated plants through to spring of 1937. Chewing tobacco is much less infectious than cigarette tobacco because the former is cured at "° F. Experiments on the relationship between curing temperature and virus inactivation are needed.

Pinckard contributed a comprehensive review of tobacco black root rot and its causative fungus and listed 10 suggestions for further study. He also reviewed his results with benzol vapors for control of downy mildew. Henderson described his results with copper oxide- cottonseed oil sprays for control of downy mildew.

In 1938, there were several staff changes in plant pathology; in May, L. I. Miller was appointed Freeport Sulphur Fellow and was stationed at Holland; in June he received the M. S. degree from V.P.I. after having been an advisee of J. G. Harrar for two years. On June 30, James Godkin resigned his position as Extension Plant Pathologist. Sometime in 1938, probably July 1, Luben Spasoff Bozovaisky was appointed Senior Scientific Aide at the Tobacco Station in Chatham. He would work under the direction of Pinckard. Wingard began a term as American Phytopathological Society representative to the AAAS council.

Early in 1938, the abstracts of the December 27-30, 1937 meetings of the American Phytopathological Society appeared in Phytopathology. Cook and Nugent reported on the increasing prevalence of "Fusarium wilt and stunt of spinach in Virginia" (28:5). Harrar reported that Verticillium spp. caused, "Blue rot of boxwood" (28:8) and Harrar and L. I. Miller described, "Phoma (Phyllosticta) antirrhini in Virginia "as a seed-and soil-borne pathogen of widespread occurrence in the state (28:8). Pinckard described, "The effect of flue-curing on the survival of ordinary tobacco virus 1" (28:18). This was the same report he gave at the 1937 Tobacco Disease Council meeting.

Groves and Hurt were as usual invited to speak at the December 1937 meeting of the Virginia State Horticultural Society and their papers were published in Virginia Fruit 26 (1). 1938. Groves spoke on, "Copper fungicides in Virginia " [26 (1):70-74]. He commented that Bordeaux mixture, the standard copper fungicide for apples, frequently causes injury to fruit and foliage. Eight copper compounds and several modifications of Bordeaux mixture had been tested. Although some were less phytotoxic than Bordeaux, they were also less fungicidal. He concluded it was not yet time to abandon Bordeaux mixture.

Hurt spoke on, "The Virginia spray program" [26 (1):91-94]. He emphasized the application of dormant sprays to control peach leaf curl. One should use either lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixture, the latter being preferred if an oil emulsion is also applied for scale control. Subsequent sprays with lime-sulphur and sulphur were recommended for pink, mid- season and preharvest sprays. The preparation of various sulphur sprays was discussed.

Later, Groves published on, "Spray injuries to apple foliage and bark" [26 (3):16-30]. He discussed factors influencing injury (temperature and humidity extremes, rainfall and drought, weathering and age of materials, residual effects and build-up of spray materials, spray combinations and correctives, manner of application, condition of equipment, condition of the tree, spray water, age of leaves and wood, orchard locations) and common types of spray injuries (sulphur, arsenical, copper, oils, tar distillate and cresylic injury, fluorine bearing materials, and lime). Most of the injuries caused by fungicides and oil sprays were illustrated. In 1946, Groves would publish bulletins on this subject.

A bulletin written by a committee of tobacco workers from Duke University, the Extension Service and Experiment Stations of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia entitled "Blue Mold (Downy Mildew) of Tobacco and its Control" was published as Va. Agri. Expt.. Sta. Bul. 318. Wingard, Henderson and Pinckard were the committeemen from Virginia. Although Henderson had shown in Technical Bulletin 62 (1939) that the fungus penetrates directly through epidermal cells, the bulletin has an illustration from Wolf's book on tobacco diseases showing that the fungus penetrates via germ tubes entering stomata. This indirect penetration is not erroneous but it is much less frequent than direct penetration.

Groves, in a paper, "The relation of concentration of fungicides and bud development to control of peach leaf curl" (Phytopathology 28:170-179. 1938), stated that peach leaf curl could be controlled with much weaker concentrations of lime-sulphur (1:50) and Bordeaux mixture (2-4-100) than had been recommended. Good control was obtained with sprays applied when leaves were protruding as much as one inch. This information provided the grower more latitude for spraying and considerable savings in fungicide costs.

No other major publications were issued in 1938; however, a number of disease reports and popular articles were issued. Cook at the Truck Station reported that late blight was destroying potatoes in storage on Eastern Shore (Plant Dis. Repts. 22:24); that Sclerotinia stem rot destroyed 25% of the plants in Princess Anne Co. (=Virginia Beach) in February (Ibid. 22: 91); that an occurrence of potato late blight in spring of 1938 was the first ever in Accomac and Princess Anne Cos., although fall occurrences were common (Ibid. 22:196). He also reported abundant occurrences of potato early blight and black leg, celery late blight and snap bean halo blight (Ibid. 22:197); that potato late blight which was first noticed on June 6, spread rapidly in June when moisture and temperature favored the disease (Ibid 22: 239); a summary of the situation was given in November. The most destructive incidence of late blight ever known on the early crop occurred in 1938 (Ibid. 22:419-420). Wingard added a note that potato late blight and soft rot were very prevalent in the Blacksburg area (Ibid. 22: 420). Late blight was so destructive nationally in 1938 that the editor was moved to cite Liam O'Flaherty's novel "Famine" which was based on the appalling effects of late blight in Ireland, and H. G. Wells' "Shape of Things to Come" in which it was predicted that, "All disease, human, animal and plant, is eradicated from the earth". The editor doubted this Utopian situation would ever be achieved and, "That there will always be a need for the work of plant pathologists---". (Ibid. 22:423-424).

In other reports, T. W. Turner of the Hampton Institute observed Botrytis stem rot destroying tomatoes in greenhouses (Ibid. 22:91) and southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii) being very destructive to peanuts on the Institute Farm (Ibid. 22:452); R.G. Henderson reported two severe occurrences of corn leaf blight (Helminthosporium turcicum); and J. W. Taylor (U.S.D.A., Arlington Farm) stated that wheat leaf rust, stem rust, powdery mildew, and Septoria were very common (Ibid. 22:301). T. J. Nugent of the Truck Station reported an outbreak of watermelon downy mildew at Smithfield and the Station. In the latter case, all plants were killed a few days after the disease was first observed. Cook described a late but destructive outbreak of spinach downy mildew on Eastern Shore and around Norfolk (Ibid. 22:462). Finally, Pinckard at the Chatham Tobacco Research Station reported that downy mildew caused some damage to field tobacco plants in the Danville area (Ibid. 22:203). Conditions were highly favorable for the development of downy mildew diseases in Virginia in 1938.

Wingard contributed three major articles on tobacco diseases to The Southern Planter in 1938. In each article, he described and illustrated a disease, explained how it was spread, how it overwintered, and how to control it. The diseases were blue mold [Sou. Pl. 99 (1):6, 19], tobacco mosaic [Ibid. 99 (6):4, 10-11], and Granville wilt [Ibid. 99 (7):10] An article by E. E. Clayton and J. K. McClarren (U.S.D.A.) on blue mold was similar to Wingard's [Ibid. 99 (2):15, 41].

Hurt contributed an article, "Peach sprays" in which he described leaf curl, scab, and brown rot and described sprays for their control [Ibid. 99 (3):5]. There was an anonymous article on small grain seed treatment in which formalin was recommended for oats, copper carbonate for wheat and New Improved Ceresan (=ethyl mercury phosphate) was recommended for all small grains [Ibid. 99 (4):10].

White pine blister rust was found in Bath and Nelson Cos., the southern-most known occurrence of the disease and in response to recent damaging outbreaks of wheat stem rust, Virginia State Quarantine No. 4 was enacted, enabling barberry eradication in 13 counties and barring movement and planting of rust-susceptible Berberis and Mahonia spp. This was in support of the federal barberry eradication program.

The appointment of S. B. (Chuck) Fenne as Extension Plant Pathologist was effective January 1, 1939. Fenne's appointment included Extension work in both plant pathology and entomology. There were no other staff changes in 1939.

Early publications in 1939 resulted from papers read at meetings held in December 1938. The American Phytopathological Society met in Richmond, Virginia December 27-30, 1938. Wingard was an APS representative to the AAAS. Several papers were read by Virginia plant pathologists.

Cook and Nugent of the Truck Station described, "The Hawkesbury watermelon, a promising wilt-resistant variety" (Phytopathology 28:7). They described tests in Fusarium-infested soil, and the characteristics of the melon which growers found acceptable. Nugent and Cook described tests with "Chloropicrin as a seed disinfectant for control of black rot of kale" (Ibid. 28:21). They found that fumigations at various rates were as effective as treatment with bichloride of mercury. Nothing was said about the irritating effects of the product which is tear gas. Groves gave two papers on his work with sulphur particle size. In, "Observations on the supposed colloidal state of sulphur in fused bentonite sulphur" (Ibid. 28:10), he reported that the sulphur occurred as large particles and in lime-sulphur preparations no colloidal state existed. In "Particle size of elementary sulphur fungicides" (Ibid. 28:10), he described the advantages of photomicrography for determining particle size. Groves would continue this work for several years and would publish two bulletins on the subject. Harrar, Miller, and Wingard described, "Cultural studies on a species of Entomophthora from the apple leaf hopper (Typhlocyba pomaria)" (Ibid. 28:11). They reported that it was difficult to distinguish species of the fungus by morphology but that physiologic criteria appeared useful. Hurt described the pros and cons of, "Bordeaux mixture as a summer fungicide for peaches" (Ibid. 28: 13). The fungicide was acceptable except as a pre-harvest spray when its use caused fruit spotting and it had to be removed by brushing. In, "Removal of spray residue with sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, and acetic acid" (Ibid. 28: 14), three steps involving a NaOH/Na2 CO3 bath, an acetic acid bath, and an H2O rinse were effective in removing lead and arsenic residues and destroying mold spores without injury to four apple varieties. Miller, E. T. Batten, the Holland station superintendent, and Wingard described experiments on, "Control of Cercospora leaf spot of peanut with copper and sulphur fungicides" (Ibid. 28: 20). Either Bordeaux mixture or dusting sulphur controlled leaf spot but without causing injury. Lime-sulphur controlled leaf spot but was phytotoxic and wettable sulphur failed to control leaf spot.

At the December 1938 meeting of the Virginia State Horticultural Society, Hurt and Groves were invited speakers. As indicated by President Frank H. Wissler's introduction, Hurt was highly regarded by the Society as, "A man whose ability we greatly appreciate and from whose instruction we profit very greatly". Hurt's first talk was on "Bitter rot in Virginia and its control" [Va. Fruit 27 (1):58-60. 1939]. There was no new information. In a discussion of "Peach fungicides" [Ibid. 27 (1):137-139], Hurt emphasized the injuries caused by Bordeaux mixture and sulphur products. To reduce such effects, he advised careful adherence to recommendations in spray calendars. Groves emphasized apples in, "Fungicides and injuries to fruit and foliage" [Ibid. 27 (1):122-123]. He prescribed the use of sulphur in early cover sprays to avoid injury from Bordeaux mixture, but the use of Bordeaux thereafter. Early use of Bordeaux gave the highest fruit weight. Groves attributed this to the "corrective action on lead arsenate and not to disease control".

Two brief articles, one by G. T. French, State Entomologist at Richmond, and one issued anonymously warned peach growers about the "X" disease present in northeastern states. According to French, the disease, similar to yellows and little peach, is transmitted by budding and probably by some insect from choke-cherries (Prunus virginiana). Growers should remove infected trees, destroy choke-cherry trees, obtain stock from uninfested areas, and insist on a valid certification of inspection [Ibid. 27 (3):10; 27(12):6,8]. (Note: Peach X disease is now known to be caused by a mycoplasma-like organism, MLO, transmitted by the leaf hoppers Colladomus sp. and Scophytopius sp.)

Only Pinckard and L. Spasoff Bozovaisky of the Chatham Tobacco Station published research papers in 1939. Pinckard and Luther Shaw of the North Carolina Experiment Station and Extension Service gave a detailed account of the development of "Downy mildew infection of flue-cured tobacco in the field" (Phytopathology 29:79-83. 1939). The disease was well- illustrated and described. A prolonged rainy period and cool temperature favored spread of the downy mildew fungus from seed beds into fields during May 1938. Subsequently, growers were urged to destroy seed-bed plants as soon as transplanting was completed.

In cooperation with research workers at Duke University, F. R. Darkis, P. M. Gross, Ruth McClean and F. A. Wolf, Pinckard published a series of papers on benzol and paradichlorobenzol fumigation to control tobacco downy mildew. Eight publications spanning two years with Pinckard as an author appeared in Phytopathology on the subject (29:16-17, 103-120, 177-187, 216-219; 30:16-17,19, 213-227, 485-495, 495-506). The research led to seed beds designed with nearly air tight sides over which were spread two layers of cloth, the lower of netting over which crystals of paradichlorobenzol were spread uniformly, the upper of tightly woven cloth stretched thereover and which was soaked with water. The crystals were applied in the evening and the upper cloth was removed after 12 hours; the procedure was carried out on several successive nights during which the fungus in plant tissues was killed. This is one of a few cases where the fungus is eradicated from host tissues without causing host damage. Although modern fungicides adequately control blue mold, some growers still find the method practical for eradicating the fungus after it has appeared in a seed bed. The work was timely as it provided a procedure that did not require use of strategic materials during World War II.

Pinckard and Spasoff (Bozovaisky) evaluated, "Carbon dioxide evolution from certain soils in relation to black root rot of flue-cured tobacco" (Ibid. 29:751). They could establish no relationship between presence or absence of Thielaviopsis basicola and CO2 evolution. Perhaps the most significant report on plant diseases in Virginia was that authored by Wingard on the "Discovery of tobacco black shank in Virginia" (Plant Dis. Rept.. 23:369-370. 1939). Black shank was diagnosed for the first time from plants collected at Nathalie, Halifax Co. July 14, 1939, and Buffalo Junction, Mecklenburg Co., July 15. Upon investigation, it was found that black shank inoculum had been brought into the Mecklenburg farm on tobacco seedlings originating at Winterville, N.C. in 1937. The source of inoculum for the Halifax site was never determined although it was present there in 1938. Though not reported, some damage was sustained in 1938.

In other items, Miller elaborated on his 1938 experiments to control peanut leaf spot (Ibid. 23:5-6). Cook reported a recurrence of white rot of onion (Sclerotium cepivorum) in Warwick Co., Dec. 14, 1938, across the road from where McWhorter had found it in 1924 and 1925. No onions had been grown for 15 years on the affected site but 75% of the crop was lost. This says something about the ability of fungi to survive. Cook also found potato late blight in Northampton Co. on Eastern Shore on May 9. Favorable conditions occurred in the region for blight to attack early potatoes for the second successive year. Wingard found wheat leaf rust on March 3 in Wythe Co., wheat powdery mildew in Montgomery Co., March 17, and barley leaf rust in Powhatan, March 21; these were the earliest records for these diseases although we know now over-wintering does occur (Ibid. 23:97). White pine blister rust was found in Greene, Highland, Rockbridge, Shenandoah, and Warren Cos. for the first time in 1938 (Ibid. 23:58-63). Fenne found Sclerotinia trifoliorum killing clover in Southside Virginia, and reported that root knot was forcing farmers to discontinue production of certified sweet potatoes in Caroline Co. (Ibid. 23:98). Blue mold was found throughout the flue-cured tobacco area and would cause a plant shortage. In demonstrations, benzol, paradichlorobenzine, and red copper oxide-cotton seed oil sprays gave good control (Ibid. 23:153).

In The Southern Planter, an anonymous article emphasized blue mold control should be implemented by using materials cited above by Fenne [Sou. Planter 100 (1):21, 1939]. The apple and peach spray calendars were published in February [Ibid. 21 (2):20,23]; no organic products were mentioned. Fenne authored an article on "Tobacco root knot control", in which the disease was described and illustrated. A three-year rotation was prescribed [Ibid. 21 (5):12].

The 5th annual conference of Tobacco Disease Council was held in Greeneville, Tenn., Aug. 8-10, 1939. Henderson described experiments in breeding tobacco for mosaic resistance. "Ambalema' and the "Holmes hybrid' were sources of resistance. F1 plants (Holmes x flue- cured) inoculated with virus developed stem necrosis and died. Eliminating Ambalema leaf type and retaining resistance was difficult. G. M. Shear discussed frenching of tobacco and described experiments which discarded thallium as a cause of frenching. Henderson reported that most commercial varieties of tobacco were susceptible to black root rot. An exception was the flue-cured variety was "Yellow Special". Resistant Turkish varieties crossed with susceptible domestic varieties have produced promising progenies. The use of paradichlorobenzine for blue mold control was discussed thoroughly. Although Pinckard had participated with the Duke University people in developing this material, he did not attend the conference.

In the annual report of the Extension Plant Pathologist, Fenne cited demonstrations with cotton to control damping-off by seed treatment with 2% Ceresan, and stated that control of the wheat gall nematode in Pulaski Co. could recoup enough funds to pay for Extension Service in that county for several years.

A summary of events in plant pathology for the decade 1930 through 1939 seems in order because the involvement of the U.S.A. in World War II would change the complexion on almost everything academic, investigational, social, and extensional in the 1940's. The Agricultural Experiment Station staff in Plant Pathology grew by the addition of Pinckard and Miller. Fenne replaced Godkin in Extension, Harrar was appointed to take over instruction, Cook replaced McWhorter and Nugent was added at Norfolk. Plant pathologists employed by Virginia on Dec. 31, 1939 totaled ten. New diseases were reported: 1930 - spinach Fusarium wilt, snap bean powdery mildew, and onion white rot; 1931 - white pine blister rust; 1932 - mosaic of wheat; 1934 - Dutch elm disease; 1937 - kale powdery mildew, tobacco black shank; 1938 - potato late blight in the early crop.

Other events were the industry-saving development of spinach seed treatments by Cook and Callenback, and vegetable seed treatments by Cook and Nugent, enactment of Federal quarantines against Dutch elm disease and barberry in Virginia, extensive investigation of blue mold of tobacco by Henderson, development of control measures using benzol and paradichlorobenze by Pinckard and Duke University investigators, the incorporation of the Department of Plant Pathology and Botany into the Biology Department, and enrollment of the author in the Biology curriculum at V.P.I.

In the 1940's, the U.S.A. would become entangled in World War II. This conflict would dictate many changes in the academic arena as students and faculty would be drafted into military service, and the tenor of research would shift toward military necessity and food for victory. The need to accelerate agricultural productivity became a national necessity. Rubber, fuel, meat, and sugar became luxuries as for the average American; these products went to war. However, for many, the ominousness of the situation did not strike home until December 7, 1941. Nothing could have more dramatically marshaled the nation into a feeling of urgency. The 1940's demonstrate how a science dedicated to protecting food and fiber responded to national needs but through 1940 and 1941 there was no evidence in plant pathology of impending calamity.

During 1940, Lawrence Miller, after having served for two years as a Freeport Sulphur Fellow, was appointed Assistant Plant Pathologist at the Tidewater Research Station, Holland, Nansemond Co. (now Suffolk). He would for the moment continue his work to control peanut leaf spot, but other problems would command his attention. Pinckard was promoted to Associate Plant Pathologist. There were no other staff changes.

The American Phytopathological Society met in Columbus, Ohio, December 27-30, 1939 and published abstracts of papers in January 1940. In the minutes of the meeting, Wingard ended a 2-year appointment as representative to A.A.P.S., Pinckard was appointed to the Committee on Advisory on Society Activities and Programs and the Committee on Publicity and Public Relations. Cook was to serve on the Committee on Coordination in Cereal and Vegetable Seed Treatment Research. These activities were the first services to the Society by Virginians since 1928.

Five papers by Virginia workers were read at Columbus. Cook and Nugent described, "Sweet-potato-storage house fumigation", with chloropicrin and formaldehyde (Phytopathology 30:4, 1940). Harrar and Martland described, "A fungous parasite of the pine bark beetle which was classified as a Beauveria sp. (Ibid. 30:8). Henderson and Wingard discussed "Spraying tomatoes for disease control" (Ibid. 30:9). Yellow copper oxide was superior to red copper oxide in two formulations. All treatments increased yields by lengthening the production period and reducing damage from Septoria, Alternaria and late blight. Ruth McClean (of Duke Univ.) and Pinckard reported on "Field studies on paradichlorobenzene in the control of tobacco downy mildew" (Ibid. 30:16).

The significance is that the chemical has an eradicant effect on the parasite without injuring the host. The studies were conducted to refine recommendations for use of the chemical. Pinckard and McClean described, "A laboratory method for determining the fungicidal value of vapors and its application to paradichlorobenze in control of tobacco downy mildew" (Ibid. 30:19). The Virginia State Horticultural Society also met on December 1939 and published the proceedings in January 1940. G. T. French, the State Entomologist, warned growers about, "The peach X-disease or the yellow-red virosis disease [Va. Fruit 28 (1):44-45, 1940]. This paper was a review of literature. Hurt spoke on, "Spraying grapes" [Ibid. 28 (1):160-163]. The most important "diseases affecting grapes in Virginia are powdery and downy mildew, and black rot. Anthracnose, bitter rot and dead arm disease sometimes cause injury". Three sprays were recommended; pre-bloom, post bloom, and just before berries touch, with 6-8- 100 Bordeaux mixture usually suffice. In addition he recommended that growers remove mummies and all crop residue. Since new growth is hard to wet, add soybean flour or fish oil soap to Bordeaux mixture. Remove residues in dips of dilute hydrochloric or acetic acid. These comments were prompted by the fact that because of black rot, 1939 was one of the worst years for grape growers. R. C. Moore, Assistant Horticulturist at V.P.I. who had minored in plant pathology, spoke on the, "Apple breeding program - cedar rust inheritance" [Ibid. 28 (1):163-166]. His results with cedar-apple rust resistance are summarized in the following crosses:

Bulletins were published by three agencies in 1940. Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 324 entitled, "Blue Mold (Downy Mildew) of Tobacco and its Control", was published anonymously by cooperating states Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It included for the first time comprehensive descriptions of fumigation with benzol and paradichlorobenzene; otherwise, it was a reprint of Bulletin 318. No doubt Pinckard and Henderson were the contributors from Virginia. Cook and Nugent at the Truck Station published, "The Control of Truck Crop Diseases in Tidewater Virginia" (Va. Truck Expt. Sta. Bul. 104). They reviewed diseases on 28 vegetable crops plus southern blight, root knot, and damping-off of crops in general. They divided the information into three sections:

  1. Importance, nature, and methods of control.
  2. Disease control programs for specific diseases.
  3. Preparation and use of fungicides; soil sterilization.

Wingard later described this as a manual "Written in a new style in which the control measures were given for the disease of the crop as a whole rather than for individual diseases. This arrangement made the manual much more practical for use by county agents, agricultural teachers, and farmers" (S. A. Wingard, The role of plant pathology in Virginia agriculture, Pl. Dis. Reptr. Suppl. 200:36-41, 1951). The first bulletin prepared by S. B. Fenne was, "Information Insecticides and Fungicides" (Va. Coop. Ext. Div. Bul. 150, 1940). The bulletin covered principles of insect and disease control and available products. Except for organic mercury compounds, no organic fungicides were mentioned.

Several journal articles about tobacco downy mildew control research were issued by Pinckard and his cooperators at Duke University, namely, Ruth McClean, F. R. Darkis, F. A. Wolf, and P. M. Gross. The titles clearly express their contents:

The third paper above is devoted to refining the techniques of on-farm use of paradichlorobenzene; 1.5 to 3 lbs. of PDB per 100 sq. yds. at a temperature of 7° C or above applied on 2 or 3 successive nights controlled downy mildew. The fungus in host tissue was killed. In attempts to induce farmers to use PDB, Fenne in his annual report for 1940 stated farmers were reluctant to invest in cloth covers and many were reluctant to spray or fumigate until severe damage had occurred.

A record of prevalent and damaging diseases may be gleaned from The Plant Disease Reporter for 1940:

In other notes Fenne in P.D.R. 24 reported tomato late blight (p.329) and early blight to be very severe in Southwest Virginia (p.333). Cucumber bacterial wilt was very prevalent and there were numerous cucumber beetles (p.333). He reported corn leaf blight (H. turcicum) to be severe for the second consecutive year. Anthracnose and rust damaged some corn in mountain counties (p.379).

Groves gave an account of fruit diseased in Northern Virginia in 1939; rust appeared late, black rot was found to increase as the age of trees increased, and addition of boron controlled internal cork (p.44-48).

In Virginia Fruit vol. 28. 1940, Horticulturist D. A. Tucker described a grape spray program [28 (4):10-14], A. H. Teske, also Horticulturist, described the use of sulphur sprays and dusts protecting the peach crop from brown rot [28 (7):20]. Wingard explained why peach trees were dying [28 (10):10-14]. Since many trees died in the summer of 1940, he described the weather for 1938 to 1940 and indicated conditions in 1938 probably caused the dying. Heavy rainfall occurred in May, June, July; dry conditions followed in August, September, and October, then excess rainfall in early November was followed by a cold spell November 24-30, with temperature falling to 12-29° F during that period. Late rains delayed dormancy and sudden cold was destructive to non-dormant trees. Wingard gave an 8-point preventative program and a 7-point rehabilitation program. Site selection, good drainage, prudent use of fertilizer, and a fall cover crop were emphasized in prevention.

Miller contributed his first popular article entitled "Dusting peanuts to control pests" [ Sou. Planter 101 (5): 20-21. 1940]. The article was based on 1938 and 1939 experiments and comments in Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 316 by Batten and Poos. One should begin dusting July 5- 15 and dust 3 to 4 times at 2-week intervals. Precautions on use of sulphur and equipment were included. Treated peanuts should be dug 5-10 days later than undusted. Dusted plants should be dried longer than undusted plants before shocking.

G. M. Shear had been working on frenching of tobacco for several years. With help from H. D. Ussery, V.P.I. Physics Department, spectrographic methods were utilized for detection of thallium in tobacco plants. It had been suggested that thallium caused frenching but Shear and Ussery could detect no thallium in either healthy or frenched plants (Shear and Ussery. Frenching of tobacco distinguished from thallium toxicity by spectrographic analysis. J. Agri. Res. 60: 129-140. 1940). For this research, Shear and Ussery were awarded the Jefferson Gold Medal of the Virginia Academy of Science in 1939.

The Sixth Annual Conference of the Tobacco Disease Council met in Blacksburg August 7-9, 1940 with S. A. Wingard and R. G. Henderson continuing as Chairman and Secretary, respectively. S. B. Fenne described the demonstrations of downy mildew control and stated that sprays with yellow copper oxide and fumigations with paradichlorobenzene were about equally effective. Henderson described the breeding work for control of black root rot and mosaic. F. O. Holmes had provided breeding stock carrying the Nicotiana glutinosa local lesion gene. Henderson found that a systemic necrosis developed in F1 hybrid plants if they were inoculated with virus, thus generating F2 or backcross progenies was difficult. The Ambalema resistance was associated with undesirable plant types and inoculated plants developed deformities.

At the meeting of the Southern Division of the American Phytopathological Society held in Birmingham, Alabama, February 7-9, 1940, Fenne reported, "Some observations on the development of root-knot nematodes diseases in Virginia" (Phytopathology 30:708). Root knot was a problem on 'Nancy Hall' sweet potatoes following supposedly resistant 'Laredo' soybeans. Actually, Laredo was very susceptible and was increasing the nematode population. In Northern Neck tomato fields, root knot apparently was being imported on seedlings from a southeastern state. At the same meetings, The Plant Nematode Council met for the third time; attendees recommended it become a permanent organization. Wingard represented Virginia (Ibid. 30:711).

State quarantine no. 6 was enacted effective April 1, 1940 to prevent the importation and intrastate movement of root knot nematodes. Apparently, nematodes had been brought into Virginia on some southern-grown plants. Hereafter, only plants officially certified as nematode-free may be imported or moved within the counties of Essex, Lancaster, Middlesex, Northumberland, Richmond, and Westmoreland. The quarantine was enacted to protect tomatoes and clover (Va. Dept. Agri. & Imm. Bul. 379:10. Mar. 1940).

In a summary of white pine blister rust work for 1940, it was reported that the rust had been found in 15 mostly northern counties (Ibid. 393: 8-9. June 1941).

In 1940, I began my association with plant pathology as a student employee assigned to work for J. G. Harrar and his graduate students. I learned to prepare culture media, pour agar plates, transfer cultures, inoculate plants, propagate plants to be used in plant physiology and pathology student laboratory experiments, and to wash dishes ad infinitum!

Several faculty changes occurred in 1941. J. A. Pinckard resigned February 15, to become Head of the Department of Plant Pathology at Mississippi State University. Wilbert A. Jenkins was hired soon after as Associate Plant Pathologist to resume the work at Chatham. Harrar resigned at the end of the spring quarter to become Head of the Plant Pathology Department at Washington State University. Edward K. Vaughan was hired in September as Associate Professor of Biology to replace him.

Early publications were the abstracts of papers presented at the American Phytopathological Society meeting in Philadelphia, December 27-31, 1940. Harrar and his graduate student J. J. McKelvey, Jr. cooperated with V. K. Charles and J. N. Couch to study, "A fungous parasite of the mealy bug" (Phytopathology 31:5. 1941). No name was assigned to the fungus but infection studies were described. Harrar with McKelvey and another graduate student, J. W. Showalter, reviewed work at V.P.I on "The parasitism of economic insects by fungi" (Ibid. 31:10). Fungi assigned to genera Entomophthora, Beauveria, Conidiobolus, and Hirsutella had been isolated from various insects. Emphasis was placed on determining the effectiveness of the fungi in biologic control of insects. Henderson and Wingard described, "Copper fungicide tests on tomatoes" (Ibid. 31: 10-11). Results with five copper compounds were inconclusive, partly because an early frost killed two of the three varieties before much of their fruit ripened. Miller described his 1939 and 1940 experiments on the, "Control of Cercospora leaf spot of peanut with proprietary sulphur dust" (Ibid. 31:16). Leaf spot caused a 30 percent reduction in yield of nuts and a 40 percent reduction in yield of hay. Wingard summarized 20 years of observations on, "Varietal resistance of wheat to loose smut" (Ibid. 31:24-25). Several commercial varieties and 8 V.P.I. selections were consistently low in infection percentage. This work would be fully described in Technical Bulletin 70.

In the Report of the Thirty-second Annual Meeting at Philadelphia (Ibid. 31:362-372), Pinckard was shown to be a member of the standing committees, Advisory on Society Activities and Programs and Committee on Public Relations. H. T. Cook was a member of the temporary committee on coordination in Cereal and Vegetable Seed Treatment Research. At the December 1940 meeting of the Virginia State Horticultural Society, R. H. Hurt spoke on, "Spreading and sticking agents for spray materials" [Va. Fruit 29 (1):90-93. 1941]. Materials which act as both spreading and sticking agents would be ideal but most materials are lacking in one respect or are toxic when applied with certain fungicides or insecticides. Hurt described the properties and listed sources for soybean flour, sulphite by-products, and kerosene oil.

Two bulletins on plant disease were published by Experiment Station personnel in 1941. R. H. Hurt published, "Control of Grape Diseases and Insects" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 332. 1941) in which he described black rot as the most destructive disease in Virginia. In addition powdery mildew, downy mildew and anthracnose were also described. A spray calendar for grapes lists lime-sulphur as a dormant spray and Bordeaux mixture as the products to be used. Wingard and F. D. Fromme elaborated on their work in, "Susceptibility of Wheat Varieties and Selections to Loose Smut" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 70. 1941). The work was started about 1920 and was continued through 1940. The varieties Fulcaster, Fultz and Poole produced many lines which reacted to smut with very low percentages of infection. Wingard produced his most renowned publication in 1941, "The nature of disease resistance in plants. I. (Botanical Rev. 7:59-109. 1941). From the title and a foot-note, it was expected that a second article would be written by Wingard but that article never appeared. It is apparent that the outbreak of World War II and subsequent events changed his priorities forever. Wingard's review contained several subtitles:

I never found out what Wingard intended to discuss in part II but I do remember him commenting how difficult it was to bring together the information in part I. The review was frequently cited in publications dealing with inheritance of disease reactions and in textbooks. A review in the U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, "Plant Diseases, 1953 by Wingard may have included some of the material originally intended for part II in the Botanical Review. It is apparent that part I ends rather abruptly.

The only other research publication in 1941 was by A. B. Groves who was one of four authors in a publication by H. W. Thurston, Jr. (Pa.), C. F. Taylor (W. Va.), A. B. Groves (Va.), and H. J. Miller (Pa.), "Interstate cooperation experiments on field spraying of sour cherries" (Phytopathology 31: 1047-1050). The advantage of pooling data from three states was that recommendations could be made after fewer years of testing different compounds and dosages. This paper resulted from cooperation among members of the Cumberland- Shenandoah Fruit Workers Conference. Such cooperation resulted in significant economic gains for the Experiment Stations and for growers in the region.

There were several contributions in 1941 to The Planter Disease Reporter by Virginia's plant pathologists. Hurt described increases of molds in apple orchards where mealy bugs proliferated. Apples from mealy-bug infested orchards rotted in storage more than those from mealy-bug free orchards (P.D.R 25: 32. 1941). Clarence Cottam, U. S. Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, reported eelgrass was recovering somewhat from its disappearance in 1931. No pathogen had been associated with the eelgrass disease through 1940 (Ibid. 25: 46-52). The spread of white pine blister rust in the Virginia counties of Clark, Page, Rockingham, Highland, and Augusta was reported in an anonymous article from the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine (Ibid. 25: 52-55). Fenne reported the occurrence of Pythium foot rot in small grains from Bland, Wythe and Montgomery Cos. in early winter 1940-41. Fields sown with fungicide treated seed had no damage (Ibid. 25: 99). Cook reported that strawberry red stele had spread from northern Accomac Co. It was also reported from Princess Anne Co. for the first time (Ibid. 25: 296). Cook also reported an unusual situation for celery late blight (Septoria apii) in the Norfolk area. Growers who used 4-year old seed (because new seed were not available) had no late blight. No late blight occurred on farms where hot water-treated seed were used, even where late blight occurred the year before (Ibid. 25: 311-31). Groves reported peach yellows was spreading in Northern Virginia (Ibid. 25:408-409) and T. J. Nugent identified mimosa tree Fusarium wilt near Norfolk at Fox Hall; this was the first diagnosis of the disease in Virginia (Ibid. 25: 409). Cook and Nugent reported that tomato bacterial canker occurred in two fields and bacterial spot was widespread by July 17 in Northampton Co. Southern blight and Fusarium wilt also occurred in Northampton. Septoria leaf spot was the most important disease in the Norfolk area. Because of the low profit margin in tomato production, spraying was not recommended in the Tidewater area (Ibid. 25: 446-447).

G. Myron Shear, Plant Physiologist and L. I. Miller reported from experiments they conducted that "Pouts" was caused by thrips feeding on young unopened leaves. When injured leaves unfolded, they had pouts. The authors recommended calling it "thrips injury" (Ibid. 25: 470-474). F. W. Poos, U.S.D.A. entomologist who worked at the Holland Station, got wind of the experiments by Shear and Miller and according to Miller tried to scoop them. Poos described the injury in a Southern Planter article [S.P. 102 (12):12. 1941].

S. B. Fenne reviewed the history of tobacco black shank in Virginia and reported new infestations occurred during 1941 in Pittsylvania and Halifax Cos. He gave a 6-point control scheme for infested farms and an 8-point scheme for uninfested farms (Pl. Dis. Reptr. 25: 534-535). Fenne also reported on the occurrence of cereal diseases. No uncommon diseases were found (Ibid. 25:553-554).

C. L. Lefebvre and H. W. Johnson of the U.S.D.A. and who worked with grasses listed a large number of pathogens on grasses which they had identified. Most of the fungi had been collected at Arlington, Virginia, probably at the research center there. Only 5 specimens were identified from collections elsewhere in Virginia (Ibid. 25:556-579).

In the Southern Planter, there were no major articles by plant pathologists. The editors published the apple spray calendar for 1941 [S.P. 102 (2):26-27. 1941]; the peach spray calendar [Ibid. 102 (3):44]; a spray program for grapes; and recommendations to treat seed corn with Semesan, Jr.; to spray or fumigate tobacco for downy mildew control; and to treat cotton seed with 2% Ceresan [Ibid. 102 (4):42-43].

At the 1941 meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Nugent and Cook described the breeding of Fusarium wilt resistant Virginia Savoy type spinach (Proceedings p.182. 1941) and the breeding of Fusarium wilt resistant watermelons. They had released Klondike, R7, Leesburg, and Hawksburg in 1938; and Blue Ribbon in 1941 (Proceedings p. 182. 1941). They reported progress on improving quality and wilt and anthracnose resistance.

Groves prepared two articles for Virginia Fruit in 1941. In "Cherry spraying" [Va. Fruit 29 (5):17-18], he presented some results obtained in the Cumberland-Shenandoah cooperative experiments and which were also published in Phytopathology. In the article "Watch for peach yellows" [Ibid. 29 (9):15-19], he pointed out that because no major outbreak of yellows had occurred in the past 20 years, Virginia orchardists tended to forget that it was an impending threat. He described its symptoms, and its transmission by the peach and plum leafhopper. He suggested, without experimental evidence, that applications of nicotine sulfate or pyrethrum would control the insect and, consequently, yellows. Hurt wrote about "Black rot of the grape and its control" [Ibid. 29 (10):14-15]. This was an abstract of Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 332.

On a personal note, I started my first course in plant pathology under Harrar, but as a survivor of a flue epidemic in mid-January I had lost so much ground that I resigned from school on January 26. After a month of rehabilitation including being fitted with eye glasses, I visited the Virginia Truck Experiment Station and was hired on March 1, at labor"s wages by Director Zimmerley, to work with M. M. Parker, Horticulturist. Under him, I learned to cross-pollinate muskmelons, tomatoes and brussels sprouts, to lay out randomized replicated field plots, to record and analyze data and to propagate plants for field experiments. In September I was transferred to work with plant pathologists Harold Cook and Tom Nugent. With them, I learned to infest soils with Fusarium spp. to collect spinach downy mildew spores and to inoculate spinach with them, to fumigate soils (and gain a healthy respect for tear gas) with chloropicrin to control nematodes, to steam soils, to run seed treatment tests and analyze the data therefrom, and to hot-water treat celery seeds. The experience was most valuable and it served me well in life. I was fully convinced I would like to become a plant pathologist. In January 1942, I returned to V.P.I.

In 1942, the plant pathologists at the Truck Station departed for military duty and replacements were hired. Nugent was the first to leave; he became a 1st lieutenant in the army on February 1. Cook departed on September 1 to become a navy lieutenant. He would use his expertise as a plant pathologist to enhance the transportation of perishable foods. On the day Nugent departed (February 1), Richard P. Porter, who had worked at the Truck Station during the summer of 1941 and who had just received the M.S. degree in plant pathology at V.P.I., was hired as Acting Assistant Plant Pathologist. Two months after Cook departed, G. K. Parris was hired on November 1 as Acting Plant Pathologist. It was clear that Director Zimmerley expected Cook and Nugent to return to their respective posts (and indeed they did).

In October 1942, Luben Spasoff entered military service where his knowledge of Slavic languages led to an appointment as an instructor in the Army. In late December S. B. Fenne was granted a leave of absence for non-military war service in Brazil. L. I. Miller volunteered for service in the Marine Corps in mid-1942. Only Fenne"s position was temporarily filled, but not until June 1, 1943.

At the December 29, 1941 - January 1, 1942 meeting of the American Phytopathological Society, only Nugent among Virginians contributed an abstract (R. W. Samson, T. J. Nugent, & L. C. Schenberger. The importance of seed transmission of early blight and Fusarium wilt of tomato. Phytopathology 32:16. 1942.) The authors found that the transmission of Alternaria solani and Fusarium lycopersici in seed from processed tomatoes was an extremely remote possibility.

To serve on committees of A.P.S. for 1942, were S. B. Fenne on Extension Work and Relations, and Cook on Coordination in Cereal and Vegetable Seed Treatment Research. (Ibid. 32: 339). Cook had chaired the subcommittee on Vegetable Seed Treatments in 1941.

At the December 9-11, 1941 meeting of the Virginia State Horticultural Society, C. R. Willey, Associate State Entomologist, discussed the Peach Yellows Law and the Code of Virginia sections 895-904 [Va. Fruit 30 (1):38-42. 1942]. According to Willey, before agents of the State Entomologist could enforce peach eradication to prevent spread of peach yellow, the Supervisors of the target county must adopt the law and be willing to support the project financially. Only two counties had adopted the law, Roanoke and Loudoun, but when agents had submitted bills for eradication work, both counties had rescinded their action and eradication was discontinued as an official project. Thus, the Peach Yellows Law although "on the books" had lain dormant for about 52 years. It could be adopted on a county basis if the procedures stipulated by the code of Virginia were followed. Otherwise the State Entomologist was powerless to condemn and destroy yellows infected trees on private property.

As the same meeting, Hurt discussed "Crystalline versus monohydrated zinc sulphate as preventive against arsenical injury on peaches "[Ibid. 30 (1): 48 - 51]. Hurt concluded that the two materials were equally efficacious.

Before their departures for military service, Cook and Nugent diligently prepared summaries of their recent projects. In "Potato Scab in Relation to Calcium, Soil Reaction, and the Use of Acid-forming and Non-acid-forming Fertilizers" (Va. Truck Expt. Sta. Bul. 108. 1942), they reported that one may use either type of fertilizer provided the soil reaction was pH 5.0-5.2. Cook and G.V.C Houghland, Associate Soil Technologist, Division of Fruit and Vegetable Crops, U.S.D.A., in a paper entitled, "The severity of potato scab reaction in relation to the use of neutralized one third neutralized fertizers" (Amer. Potato Jour. 19:201- 208, 1942), reported essentially the same information but provided a more technical study and analysis of the problem. However, it was concluded potatoes should be grown at pH 4.8 or lower.

Cook and L. L. Harter (U.S.D.A.) published "Chemicals Effective for Sweet Potato "Seed" Treatment" (Va. Truck Expt. Sta. Bul. 109). Mercuric chloride (=HgCl2) was better than boric acid, borax or lime-sulphur but these three materials could be substituted for HgCl2 for control of black leg caused by Ceratostomella fimbriata. "Seed" should be dipped for 10 minutes in appropriate solutions of the above products and be bedded immediately.

At the annual meeting of the Southern Division of the American Phytopathological Society held in Memphis February 4-6, R.G. Henderson presented two papers; these were documented by very long abstracts. In, "Breeding tobacco for black-root-rot resistance" (Phytopathology 32:647), Henderson reported the program had been initiated in 1934. Turkish (Xanthia) x flue-cured or dark fire types yielded resistant lines approaching commercial type after selection in the F2 and F3 generations but backcrossing after selection to commercial types was required to reduce expression of Turkish traits. One hybrid selection of flue-cured types, No. 38, produced nearly $100/acre more return than the control susceptible variety Yellow Mammoth.

In, "Studies on soil sterilization with urea and calcium cyanamid" (Ibid 32:647-648), Henderson studied some of the physical changes that occurred in soil following treatment. Interest in these compounds is sustained by their potential for controlling weeds in tobacco seed beds.

A. B. Massey, now teaching taxonomy and field botany to students in the Forestry and Wildlife curriculum, co-authored a note on a smut of Indian grass (Massey and G.L. Zundel. Sphacelotheca, host of an unidentified smut. Phytopathology 32:544-546. 1942). The smut, identified as Sphacelotheca sorghastri actually had been identified previously as S. Andropogonis - hirtifolii, was found on Sorghastrum elliottii, long awned Indian grass in Pittsylvania Co. near Chatham. This collection extended the range of S. elliottii into the Piedmont; it was known previously from only a few counties of the Coastal Plain.

Pinckard, who had left the Chatham station, published a paper based on some work done while he was at Chatham entitled, "The mechanism of spore dispersal in Peronospora tabacina and certain other downy mildew fungi" Phytopathology 32:505-511). He found that after spores are matured in a saturated atmosphere, drying causes the sporophores to twist, bend, and to become entangled thereby dislodging spores. There was no evidence of forcible ejection of the spores.

Pinckard and L. Spasoff Bozovaisky described, "A method for the culture of seedlings and small plants in sunlight under controlled temperature conditions" (Phytopathology 32:467- 476). They described "home-made" growth chambers in which they studied the effects of temperature on the growth of tobacco colonized by Thielaviopsis basicola. Temperature was maintained within 2-3° F of the desired temperature when the greenhouse temperature was between 25 and 105° F. In a second paper, they described and illustrated, "Cold injury of flue-cured tobacco seedlings" (Ibid. 32:512-517). "White bud" was the chief symptom observed.

Bulletins published in 1942 addressed fruit, peanut, and tobacco. Groves published, "The Elemental Sulfur Fungicides" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 82) in which he explained the preparation, composition and properties of sulfurs for sprays and dusts. Size of particle, the smaller the better, was the most significant property. He prepared a unique grid- photo study for analyzing size. Miller published a summary of the 1941 and 1942 results on, "Peanut Leafspot and Leafhopper Control" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 338). The yield of nuts was increased from 238 to 834 lbs./ac. on 30 farms and the yield of hay increased from 593 to 3419 lbs./ac., compared to undusted plots when three applications of dust were made. A detailed account would be published in 1946. Henderson, and E. M. Mathews, Agronomist at Chatham, published, "Yellow Special Tobacco, a New Flue-cured Variety Resistant to Black Root Rot" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 346). This variety was the first to be released from Virginia"s project to breed disease resistant tobacco. It was widely used from 1942 to 1946; it was considered tolerant of but not resistant to the black root rot fungus. Fenne published, "Important Tobacco Diseases in Virginia and Their Control" (Va. Agri. Ext. Ser. Bul. 152) in which he discussed downy mildew, mosaic, ring spot, brown spot, frenching, black root rot, Granville wilt, black shank, root knot, and sore shin. He emphasized seed bed problems and that production of disease free seedlings is essential to a healthy tobacco crop. A section on collecting and mailing diseased plants concluded the bulletin.

In the Plant Disease Reporter, Cook and L.L. Harter (U.S.D.A.) described tests in which wettable Spergon was compared with bichloride of mercury for disinfesting sweet potatoes (P.D.R. 26:222). Spergon at 6oz./gal. was ineffective while HgCl2 was nearly perfect in preventing black rot.

The papers by Cook, Nugent, Miller, and Spasoff would be their last until after World War II.

At the May meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science (VAS), Henderson and Wingard reported their results with tomato fungicides (Proc. VAS p.216, 1942). On 'Earliana", 'Pitchard" and 'Marglobe", tribasic copper sulfate, Bordeaux mixture, yellow copper oxide sprays and tribasic and red copper oxide dusts were tested. Earliana received 6 applications; others received 5. Highly significant yield increases were obtained with all treatments on Earliana; only Bordeaux failed to produce significant increases on Pritchard; and on Marglobe, only tribasic produced a significant increase over untreated plots. Septoria and Alternaria leaf spots were the only diseases observed. Groves contributed observations on, "Ground sprays as supplementary scab control measures" [Va. Fruit (4):13-14, 1942]. He concluded that ground sprays are "in the category of special or supplementary measures to be used in special situations, not as a justifiable addition to the regular schedule" because they were expensive and would not allow elimination of any of the regular sprays. Fenne in the same journal, wrote about, "Garden sanitation and care of spraying (and dusting equipment) and save dusts and spray materials" [Va. Fruit (12) :14]. The title was garbled but the message was to conserve supplies and equipment during wartime storages. He also emphasized destruction of diseased plants and composting healthy plant residues.

W. A. Jenkins who had replaced Pinckard at Chatham contributed an article to the Southern Planter entitled, "Tobacco black shank disease strikes" [S.P. 103 (1):6]. He described the symptoms and reported that in 1937 and 1938, downy mildew severely damaged tobacco seedlings, and farmers were forced to import plants and with the plants came the black shank fungus. He distinguished black shank from sore skin wherein affected plants topple. There are no satisfactory control measures so he warned growers that if their farms were not infested, don"t import plants, grow your own, and control downy mildew. In the future, black-shank-resistant varieties may become an alternative. This was Jenkin"s first publication on Virginia plant pathology.

Fenne followed with an article on, "Preparation of the tobacco plant bed" [S.P 103 (2):15]. He described narrow (6') plant beds with walkways between and advised growers to control blue mold and weeds so that 100 sq. yds. would produce 10 to 15 thousand plants.

In the 1942 apple spray calendar, no new materials or procedures were included. [S.P. 103 (3):14]. To date, only organic mercury (Ceresan, Semesan) and organic sulfur (Spergon) among the forthcoming myriad of organic fungicides were available and these were seed treatment chemicals.

In the Plant Disease Reporter (P.D.R.), there were several reports by Fenne: A summary of the 1941 tobacco disease situation (P.D.R. 26:52-53), and in 1942 (P.D.R. 26:432-434). An occurrence, first in U.S.A., of Cercospora atropae on a war emergency experimental planting of belladonna, Atropa belladonna, (P.D.R. 26:280). Anthracnose in beans grown from seed produced in the arid west was causing farmers to lose faith in western grown seed (P.D.R. 26:337). Soybean frog-eye leaf spot appeared in Stafford Co., the first time it had occurred in Virginia (P.D.R. 26:382-383). Potato and tomato late blight spread rapidly in western Virginia during August (P.D.R. 26:283). Corn leaf blight was very severe on Pioneer 300, Dekalb 816, Funk G94, U.S.13, and Kentucky Dent; resistant varieties were Funk 135, Illinois 448, U.S.99, U.S. 109, Tennessee 15, and Kentucky 201 (P.D.R. 26:257). The susceptible/resistant categories must have been obtained from experimental plots because in 1942, only 7.6 per cent of Virginia"s corn acreage was planted with hybrid varieties [Sou. Planter 104 (10):4. 1943]. On small grains, stem rust was widespread but late; even so a 10 per cent loss occurred. The amount of leaf rust was the highest in 10 years (Fenne, P.D.R. 26:478-479). H. B. Humphrey (U.S.D.A.) reported that in Southwest Virginia, stem rust occurred in nearly every field, varying from trace to heavy by June 20 (P.D.R. 26:288).

White pine blister rust was found on currants in Bland, Giles, Grayson, Pulaski, Smyth, Wythe Cos. and on pine in Bath and Shenandoah Cos. for the first time (R.G. Pierce, P.D.R. 26:54).

Jenkins published a wordy account of "Diseases of bright tobacco in Pittsylvania County, Virginia during the 1942 season" (P.D.R. 26:434-437).

A War Emergency Committee of the American Phytopathological Society was created following an A.P.S. summer meeting in Toledo. Its stated purpose, "Is to provide for coordinated effort in research, experimentation and extension work designed to control destructive diseases of plants" (Phytopathology 32: 831-832; 917-918). Emphasis would be on converting accumulated knowledge of diseases into measures for controlling them. Because of a shortage of plant pathologists, individuals were encouraged to discontinue work on diseases of plants not vital to the war effort. Of high priority was the creation of a nation-wide plant disease survey service in order to detect quickly newly introduced, potentially damaging diseases of crops vital to the war effort. The Victory Garden program had been established and home production and canning of foods would be expected to allow diversion of commercially produced fresh fruits and vegetables to the military. In this respect extension plant pathologists had to devote much time to teaching disease control to home gardeners. Fenne was appointed to the subcommittee on Extension. Within this group, he was named chairman of a committee to select Kodachrome slides for duplication and distribution to states that cooperated by contributing slides for selection. Fenne was also a member of the War Service Committee of Southern Plant Pathologists, appointed to make recommendations for control of cereal diseases. His service on these committees was brief; in late December he departed for Brazil.

I returned to V.P.I. in January, 1942 and took up where I had left off in January of 1941. Under E. K. Vaughan I took Phytology and Plant Pathology. I was also assigned to work for him as a student aide in the National Youth Administration Program. To me, Vaughan was friendlier than Harrar had been. We began generating a friendship that would last to the end of his life.

The grim realities of war were brought home by the rationing of sugar, meat, gasoline and tires. The sale of new automobiles ceased and the military draft intensified. I was drafted in December 1942 but because my right arm had been partially paralyzed at birth, I was classified 4F and allowed to continue my education.

On June 1, 1943, E. K. Vaughan moved laterally into the position as Extension Plant Pathologist. I had just graduated and expected to have him as my advisor in a plant pathology M.S. program. Naturally, I was concerned for my own welfare but he agreed to see me through to graduation, provided I did my part.

Before I initiated my M.S. program, I spent two weeks on the Barberry Eradication Project with R. S. Mullin, State Leader, as my supervisor. I put out some brush control chemicals in Wythe Co. near Speedwell on square-rod plots. Chemicals including ammate, sodium chlorate, and 2-,4D were employed. The corners were marked with stakes made from trees 2 to 3" in diameter. Water for mixing solutions came from nearby Cripple Creek. A map was prepared so that the plots could be identified later. On one occasion, I interrupted a baptismal ceremony being conducted in the creek by a local church. Whatever the denomination, they almost drowned the new members before they felt they were appropriately baptized. During the remainder of the 10 working days, I drove around Wythe and counties adjacent, hunting for grain fields and stem rust. I was instructed to make 3 or 4 collections of grain stems per county and send them to the Rust Laboratory at the University of Minnesota. Later (in 1947) when I met W. Q. Loegering who did the rust identification work at the Laboratory, I asked him about the collections I had made. To my astonishment, he had thrown them all away. Mullin had not told me to dry them before I mailed them; they had arrived in St. Paul as a moldy mess. Despite my wasted effort, Bill Loegering and I became life-long friends.

Late in the summer of 1943, I asked Mullin what he learned about the chemical treatments. He replied that he had some difficulty in locating and identifying the treatments. Someone had pulled up the corner stakes and used them for firewood. However, the chemicals had killed all the barberry bushes in treated plots and a few big pine trees to boot. He seemed satisfied with the results.

During that same stint with barberry work, Mullin and Vaughan set up a meeting with me at a certain crossroad. They were bringing E.C. Stakman who was Head of Plant Pathology and in charge of the Rust Laboratory at the University of Minnesota. At that time, I didn"t know it but in September 1944, I would start my Ph.D program under Stakman, but on that day in 1943 at some remote crossroad in Wythe Co., I was to meet the world"s leading authority on cereal diseases, the man who had trained both Harrar and Vaughan. I arrived at the appointed time and designated place and waited, and waited and waited. Finally I resumed my mission of examining grain fields and estimating the severity of rust. Later I learned that Stakman and company had arrived at the designated place soon after I had left. I would have to wait until fall of 1944 to meet the famous Stakman. C"est la vie!

From my two-week experience, I learned much about the distribution of native or Allegheny barberry, the destructive potential of black stem rust, the rugged beauty of southwestern Virginia, and how to climb over fences without damaging them or tearing my pants.

In the years 1942 and 1943, grains in southwestern Virginia were heavily rusted. Stakman, R.U. Cotter and W.Q. Loegering of the Rust Laboratory, gave a paper in 1943 on, "Regional spread of wheat stem rust from barberry-infested areas of the Virginians in 1942" (Phytopathology 33:12. 1943). They deduced that because race 38 predominated the rust population in the Virginians and because prevailing winds had blown northward during urediospore production, and because race 38 had been rare north of the Virginians but in 1942 was destructive to wheat in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan and Illinois, that the inoculum had originated in the Virginias. This probably precipitated Stakman"s visit to Virginia during the rust epidemic of 1943. He had to see for himself. Believe me, he was not disappointed.

The faculty issued four bulletins in 1943. Wingard described, "New Rust-resistant Pole Beans of Superior Quality" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 350). He reviewed the project which was started in 1916; namely, the selection of rust-resistant pole bean varieties to be crossed with susceptible, high quality varieties; genetics of resistance; and selection of high quality beans from F3 and F4 progenies. Wingard and Fromme had been the first to study the inheritance of rust reaction in bean. Ten selections were named "Virginia Victory No. (1 through 10)". They were very popular with home gardeners but a failure in the commercial seed business. Pole beans were a nuisance to seed producers. Wingard maintained them well into the 1960's but I never heard anyone call them Victory; everyone called them "Wingard"s Wonder Beans".

E. M. Matthews, Superintendent of the Chatham Station, and R. G. Henderson described, "Yellow Special Tobacco, a New Flue-cured Variety Resistant to Black Root Rot" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 346). The variety originated as a selection of a cross between "Harrison Special" and probably "Lizard Tail" and was grown and tested for 10 years before it was released in 1942 for production in 1943. Quality and growth on black-root-rot-infested soil was excellent. The variety possessed some resistance to black shank, sore shin and damping-off. It was the first disease-resistant tobacco variety released by the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.

A. B. Groves (Winchester), H. J. Miller (Penn.) and C. F. Taylor ( W.Va.) described their cooperative "Tri-State Cherry-Spray Investigations" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 354; also Pa. A.E.S. Bul. 447 and W.Va. A.E.S. Bul. 310). Leaf spot was the most destructive disease. After testing several copper and sulfur fungicides and comparing them with Fermate ( ferbam) Spergon, Thylate (thiram), and what became Dithane (nabam), they concluded that early applications of lime-sulphur and later applications of Bordeaux mixture gave best leaf spot control and caused the least damage to fruit.

Henderson summarized the "Testing of Copper Fungicides for Control of Tomato Blight in Southwest Virginia" (Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 89). Five copper products were evaluated for control of early blight, late blight, Septoria and Stemphyluim leaf spots. In dry years, there was little difference between fungicides but Bordeaux mixture reduced the number of marketable fruits. In wet years, Bordeaux mixture was superior and all materials increased the yield of marketable fruits.

The Virginia Department of Agriculture and Immigration (V.D.A.I.) reported a revision of quarantine no. 3, effective May 1, 1943 (V.D.A.I.Bul. 414:8. 1943). The revision allowed planting and movement of currants and gooseberries where previously it had not been permitted in the counties of Clark, Faquier, Loudoun, and Scott. The report did not give the rationale for the change. In Bulletin 419:11-12, it was reported that commercial damage to white pine had been found in Augusta, Bath, Highland, Madison, Page, Rappahannock, Rockingham, and Shenandoah Cos. In Bulletin 420:11, it was reported that rust was found on Ribes in Bedford and Washington Cos. In Bulletin 419:12, a report reviewed briefly the barberry eradication project. The State had initiated it in 1934. In 1942 and 1943, the heaviest rust ever was in the block of counties Augusta, Rockbridge, and Rockingham and the southwestern counties of Bland, Carroll, Smyth, Tazwell, and Wythe (See also Pl. Dis. Rept.. 26:54).

Due to war-time travel restrictions, the Tobacco Disease Council could not meet but written reports were submitted to Chairman Wingard and he assembled the reports for distribution. Wilbert Jenkins reported that high winds reduced the effectiveness of PDB in controlling downy mildew. Fumigation under these conditions allowed established infections to linger and, thus, treated beds were no more useful than untreated beds. Jenkins also reported on laboratory studies on black root rot and Granville wilt and on breeding for resistance to black shank in the crosses Yellow Special X Bullock"s No. 45 and Y.S. X Bullock"s No. 72. Henderson reported on breeding for black root rot resistance and the problems of testing large numbers of hybrids; intensity of black root rot infestation varied within blocks such that the use of the lattice design was introduced to gain precision over the randomized block design.

The Emergency Plant Disease Prevention Project was established by the Plant Disease Survey on July 1, 1943 from emergency funds made available by President Roosevelt. "The purpose of this project was to help protect the country"s food, feed, fiber, and oil supplies by insuring immediate detection of enemy attempts at crop destruction through the use of plant diseases, and by providing production specialists and extension workers with prompt and accurate information regarding outbreaks of plant diseases, whether introduced inadvertently or by design while still in incipient stages" (P.R. Miller and J. I. Wood. An Evaluation of Certain Phases of the Emergency Plant Disease Prevention Project. Plant Dis. Reptr. Supp. 167. 1947). R. E. Atkinson was assigned at first to survey in Virginia in 1943 but C. F. Taylor soon succeeded him. Atkinson had been a Minnesota buddy of Vaughan, and although there is no mention of Atkinson"s visits to V.P.I. and his emergency survey work in Vaughan"s annual reports (1943, 1944), they made several trips together. Most of Vaughan"s cooperative surveys were with Taylor as noted by Taylor in his survey reports (C.F. Taylor. 1943. Reports on plant disease survey, Virginia and West Virginia. Plant Dis. Repts. 27:410- 412, 471-473, 501, 521, 609-610, 622, 625, 627-828, 632-633. 1943). There were no reports of new or unexpected losses from old diseases.

In a Plant Disease Reporter article, R. P. Porter reported studies on, "Seed-borne inoculum of Phomopsis vexans - its extent and effects" (P.D.R. 27:167-169). He found 22% of 27 samples of eggplant seed had P. vexans spores and that seedling infections could be induced by soil-borne inoculum. Thus, there was a need to obtain P. vexans-free seed and plant in P. vexans-free soil. Jenkins reported on, "Downy mildew of bright tobacco in Virginia during the 1943 plant bed season" (P.D.R. 27:227-228). The disease was first detected in Pittsylvania Co. on April 25; average first date for the bright belt was May 5. Downy mildew was blamed for 15 to 60% losses in production. P.D.B. gave the best control; Fermate gave encouraging results. G. K. Parris reported, "Reduction in the yield of celery caused by root-knot nematode" (P.D.R. 27:234), on a farm where poor growth brought an inquiry. Nematodes caused a 48% reduction of trimmed celery. Parris and R. A. Jehle reported on, "Root knot on lima beans in Maryland" (P.D.R. 27:235), and R. P. Porter on "Arasan (Thiosan) as a spinach seed treatment" (P.D.R. 27:262-263). He found Arasan was superior to ZnO and cheaper, $9.00 to 12.00 for treating 2000 lbs. of seed with ZnO and $5.00 to 6.45 with Arasan. Arasan did not require addition of graphite. E. K. Vaughan reported that black shank and Granville wilt were spreading; black shank caused damage in Franklin and Charlotte Cos. and Granville wilt was found in nine old-belt counties (P.D.R. 27:272-273).

The acreage of hybrid corn in Virginia nearly doubled from 7.6% in 1942 to 13% in 1943. [S.P. 104 (10):4. 1943]. The editor in the "Work for the month" column plugged the dusting of peanuts. A schedule for different types was provided [S.P. 104 (6):8.1943]. Nothing else related to plant pathology was published in The Southern Planter in 1943.

Hurt had two articles in the 1943 Virginia Fruit. The first, "Cryolite as a lead arsenate substitute," was entomology, not plant pathology [Va. Fruit 31 (1):47-50]. In the second, "Methods of bitter rot control", Hurt reported that bitter rot had caused little damage to apples in the preceding years but in 1942, conditions were favorable for the establishment of the bitter rot fungus in orchards and some losses occurred. This article was a reminder for orchardists to be vigilant and to carry out the proper control measures. He described symptoms, disease cycle and control measures. They had not changed for many years. One should remove mummies and dead twigs from trees, and apply 2 to 4 sprays of Bordeaux mixture, depending on the susceptibility of the varieties. "Red Delicious" and "Winesap" were considered non- susceptible and required but 2 or 3 sprays of 2-4-100; "Pippin", "Jonathan", required 3 or 4 sprays of 3-6-100. The third cover spray was the most critical for bitter rot control [Va. Fruit 31 (4):10-14].

Despite it being war time, there was a considerable volume of publication by Virginia plant pathologists in 1943. The most significant events were the introduction of Fermate for use in orchards and tobacco seed beds, and the transfer of Vaughan from instruction to extension.

Vaughan was very much interested in history and geography. In his 1943 report of extension project work (actually June 1 to Nov. 30), he made comprehensive summaries of diseases in Victory Gardens (only early and late blights occurred in epiphytotic proportions), small grains (scab and stem rust were epiphytotic), tobacco (downy mildew, black shank and Granville wilt were the most damaging), peanuts (only leaf spot was of major importance) and corn (seedling blight, stalk and ear rots, and smut but not leaf blight, caused most damage). His most elaborate report was on black stem rust of wheat and barberry eradication. Here he demonstrated his flair for history. Although his report was based on information provided by R. S. Mullin, Associate Pathologist, U.S.D.A., in charge of barberry eradication for Virginia, it is the most comprehensive report I have found. Original reports by Mullin and earlier by Matheny have not been located. The impact of barberry eradication was demonstrated during the 1942 and 1943 stem rust epiphytotics. Brine or salt was still being used to kill bushes. The curtailment of activities by the Works Project Administration in 1942 greatly reduced the intensity of eradication work; thus resurvey of areas in which bushes had been previously eradicated was emphasized. Survey and eradication on new properties was curtailed.

In 1944, A. B. Massey taught Plant Pathology in the winter and spring quarters and I was his teaching assistant. R. P. Porter resigned from the Truck Station on January 30, to go into pesticide distribution and sales work. E. K. Vaughan resigned September 9, to return to tomato disease research, U.S.D.A. at Tifton, Georgia. Henderson received the Ph.D. degree from Iowa State College and I was awarded the M.S. degree in September. After my graduation, graduate studies in Plant Pathology at V.P.I. were shelved for the next decade. Not until 1953 would the Department of Plant Pathology and Physiology be authorized to grant M.S. degrees in its two disciplines. R. S. Mullin, until fall of 1944, was State Leader of the Barberry Eradication Project. In September he resigned his position and took up graduate study at the University of Minnesota under E. C. Stakman. I joined him as a fellow student.

The abstracts of the 1943 Society meetings had been published in 1943, not in January 1944 as was the pattern previously. Virginia pathologists did not participate. The talk given by Groves at the December 1943 meeting of the Virginia State Horticultural Society was published in January 1944. Hurt was not on the program. Groves spoke on, "Controlling cedar rust with fungicides" [Va. Fruit 32 (1):33-36]. He described the pros and cons of the cedar eradication program and a need for an effective fungicide for use where cedar eradication was either not practicable or the law had not been adopted locally. He described the success he had in 1943 with the new fungicide "Fermate" and recommended it for inclusion in spray programs on rust-prone varieties.

Immediately following Groves, W. H. Tisdale of the DuPont Co., Wilmington, Delaware, spoke on "Fermate ---A promising fungicide" [Ibid. 32 (1):36-40]. He gave a brief history of the development of organic fungicides and cited "Semesan" and "Ceresan" for cereal seed treatment, "Arasan" and "Thiosan" for seed and soil treatment, and "Fermate" for fruit and foliage diseases. In addition to its fungicidal properties, Fermate needed no safener and, indeed, acted as a safener for lead arsenate. He listed pears, cherries, peaches, tobacco, tomatoes and several ornamentals as crops that would benefit from use of Fermate. He warned that Fermate is corrosive; therefore, sprayers should be thoroughly cleaned after its use.

With the introduction of Fermate, a whole new era began; freedom from dependence on sulfur and copper sprays was in sight. However, much testing would be necessary before each new product could be put to use. In Virginia, orchardists and tobacco farmers would be the first major benefactors.

Later in the year, Groves contributed a note, "Organic fungicides in 1944" [Va. Fruit 32 (9):13-14] elaborating on his results with "Fermate" in 1944. Results were encouraging in that Fermate proved compatible with summer oil and nicotine sprays but on peaches, it left a dark, objectionable residue. Groves found it had a narrow spectrum of disease control.

In another note, Hurt declared that a new phase of fungus and insect control is in the making [Inorganic spray materials versus organic materials as fungicides and insecticides. Va. Fruit 32 (10):8-9]. He found as Groves had that Fermate was effective for apple scab and cedar rust.

The only research bulletin published by plant pathologists in 1944 was prepared by Groves (A.B. Groves. Sulfur Sprays. Va. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 359. 1944). Here he described the types and forms of sulfur fungicides, the preparation, use, and disadvantages of lime- sulfur. The latter was highly recommended for use on apples to control early infections of apple scab and as a dormant spray for eliminating peach leaf curl. It would sometimes injure apple fruit, and would interfere with the efficacy of lead arsenate. Several other aspects of sulfur were discussed. Elemental sulfur products were described as universally useful on peaches.

Vaughan published an extension bulletin, "Control Victory Garden Pests and Diseases (Va. Agri. Ext. Div. Bul. 158) in which he provided the gardeners with general principles of disease and insect control, described various pesticides, and listed various insects and diseases the gardener might encounter. Emphasis seemed to be on insects.

In Phytopathology, Vaughan published two papers based on work he had done before coming to V.P.I. In the first "The use of ethyl mercury phosphate for treating tomato seed in New Jersey" (Phytopathology 34:175-184), New Improved Ceresan dissolved in tap water (1 g in 1200 ml) proved satisfactory for eliminating Alternaria solani, the primary seed-borne organism causing seedling diseases in tomato. In the second, "Bacterial wilt of tomato caused by Phytomonas solanacearum" (Ibid. 34:443-458), Vaughan presented his Ph.D. dissertation. He emphasized edaphic factors in relation to wilt development.

Shear and Wingard published, "Some ways by which nutrition may effect severity of disease in plants" (Ibid. 34:603-605). This was a discussion of the effect of nutrients in conductive tissue on the development of bacterial wilt of corn.

G. K. Parris, the Acting Plant Pathologist at the Truck Station, published a note on "A simple nuclear stain and staining technique for Helminthosporia" (Ibid. 34:700-702). It was an agar-slide culture technique; acid fuchsin was used to stain the cultures. The cover slips could be sealed in place with paraffin.

In May, at the Virginia Academy of Science meetings, Henderson described a, "Technique for measuring resistance to black root rot in tobacco" (Proc. Va. Acad. Sci. 1944:73). In replicated field plots, using a lattice design, 30 entries were measured 3 times during the growing season. The most critical measurements were those taken first. The lattice design gave greater accuracy than did the randomized block.

Vaughan spoke on, "Black shank, a little known but serious threat to tobacco production in Virginia" (Ibid. 1944:48). He reviewed the history of black shank in Virginia, its spread and potential for great destruction in the bright to